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Human Performance vs. Organizational Performance
inter-related, organizational performance and human performance focus on different kinds of performance. Organizational performance is expressed in terms of a mission, vision, and goals. Then, organizations identify strategies to reach the mission, vision, and goals.
Organizational performance
measured by outputs—such as productivity (e.g., units produced), time (e.g., meeting schedules), costs (e.g., meeting budget), and quality (e.g., error rates) (Bassi & Russ-Eft, 1997)
Human performance
expressed in terms of individual competencies. The following model for Organizational Performance Improvement is based on a model copyrighted by ICF International
Human performance
Human performance problems are commonly expressed as a performance gap. A performance gap exists when there is a difference between what an employee is doing – the actual – and what that employee should be doing – the ideal (Mager, 1997; Rothwell & Kazanas, 1998).
The instructional design process
The instructional design process focuses on IMPROVING human performance
Instructional design
field of study and an emerging profession focused on maintaining and improving human performance in organizations. Maintaining and improving human performance in organizations includes the implementation of instructional and non-instructional solutions to related problems (Rothwell & Kazanas, 1998).
Biswalo (2001) identified five major characteristics of ISD
1. Training requirements are expressed in terms of specific job performance criteria.
2. Empirical evaluation is part of the development process; evaluation data is used to improve training programs.
3. ISD procedures identify the best strategies, media, and sequencing for training.
4. The process is team oriented.
5. The components of ISD follow an orderly and flexible sequence.
Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
a valid method for curriculum development that focuses on an instructional solution to a performance gap and, then, determines if the gap is closed (Macchia, 1992). By focusing specifically on the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed at work, job performance is potentially improved. ISD originated as a quick fix for performance problems in the work of active duty military members.
Applications of ISD
Comprehensive Problem Solving, Situation Specific Needs Analysis, Job Description Development, Performance Evaluation, Writing RFPs and Responding to Proposals
Comprehensive Problem Solving
This application of the ISD model focuses on the analysis and design components. This approach is appropriate when much information should be reviewed quickly, and a full-scale instructional design project is required. It is a top-down process. It is based on the premise that human performance problems are based in organizational performance problems (Rothwell & Kazanas, 1998). The result of this application of the ISD model is a comprehensive education and training structure, and/or non-instructional solutions to performance problems
Situation Specific Needs Analysis
This application of the ISD model is focused on the analysis and design components. This approach to ISD is appropriate for troubleshooting management requests to solve specific organizational problems. It is based in the premise that after gathering as much information as possible about the problem, instructional designers gain the support of key decision makers in implementing a solution to the problem (Rothwell & Kazanas, 1998). The result of this application of the ISD model is education and training customized to a specific need
Job Description Development
The analysis component of the ISD model is used to identify and validate the responsibilities allocated to individual employees in an organization. “What people do— their work—is central to organizational structure and performance” (Rothwell & Kazanas, 1998, p. 117). Through the ISD process, job content, prerequisite knowledge, skills, and experience, conditions and standards of performance are identified. The result of this application of the ISD model is information from which a current, valid job description can be written. This document can be used to advertise, screen, and select employees, as well as, monitor performance.
Performance Evaluation
The evaluation component of the ISD model is used to determine if employees have achieved their established performance target. This target is expressed as a task statement and corresponding performance objective terms. Through three types of information—conditions, performance, and standard of performance—objective decisions can be made about an individual’s work. Through evaluation, employee, student and/or trainer can determine if an objective has been reached and what action should be taken next (Mager, 1997).
Writing RFPs and Responding to Proposals
Through the analysis component of ISD, a Request for Proposal (RFP) can be written to identify and validate a training need in the public and private sectors. Through use of the five components, proposals to address an RFP can be written. A proposal is a “document that offers to solve a problem for a reader or group of readers by providing specified goods and/or services at a specified cost of in exchange for something else” (Bowman & Branchaw, 1992, p. 2). Because proposals are solicited documents, they are competitive in nature and require the careful and creative use of the ISD process.
ADDIE
ADDIE is frequently presented as synonymous with ISD and sometimes know as the Systematic Approach to Training (SAT). It is a 5-component system (Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate) that works to address human performance problems.
Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)

CONDUCT A FEASIBILITY STUDY
CONDUCT A FEASIBILITY STUDY - Needs or Front End (Analysis Phase):
PURPOSE: To determine if there is a need for a curriculum to be created.
Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)

DEVELOP A TASK LIST (Analysis Phase):
DEVELOP A TASK LIST (Analysis Phase):
PURPOSE: To identify and list the tasks performed in an occupation
Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)

CONDUCT A TASK ANALYSIS (Analysis Phase):
PURPOSE
CONDUCT A TASK ANALYSIS (Analysis Phase):
PURPOSE: To identify the steps, skills and knowledge required for job performance at entry level, intermediate, and advanced level.
Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)

DEVELOP MEASURABLE OBJECTIVES (Design Phase):
DEVELOP MEASURABLE OBJECTIVES (Design Phase):
PURPOSE: To state what students are expected to learn as a result of the instruction
Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)

DEVELOP AND VERIFY CRITERION INSTRUMENTS (Design Phase):
DEVELOP AND VERIFY CRITERION INSTRUMENTS (Design Phase):
PURPOSE: To develop a series of measurement materials which determine whether students are learning the objectives.
Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)

DEVELOP LEARNING ACTIVITY PACKAGES (Design & Develop Phases):
DEVELOP LEARNING ACTIVITY PACKAGES (Design & Develop Phases):
PURPOSE: To develop materials that present information to students based upon the measurable objectives.
Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)

VALIDATE INDIVIDUAL LAP (Develop Phase):
VALIDATE INDIVIDUAL LAP (Develop Phase):
PURPOSE: To determine if the instructional materials teach the students for whom they were intended.
Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)

SEQUENCE LEARNING ACTIVITIES (Develop Phase):
SEQUENCE LEARNING ACTIVITIES (Develop Phase):
PURPOSE: To determine if objectives are developed at the correct performance level and presented in the correct sequence.
Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)

IMPLEMENT AND TEST THE SYSTEM (Implement & Evaluate Phases):
IMPLEMENT AND TEST THE SYSTEM (Implement & Evaluate Phases):
PURPOSE: To test the effectiveness of the entire system, including the instructional materials, teaching guides, etc.
Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)

EVALUATE/IMPROVE (Evaluate Phase):
EVALUATE/IMPROVE (Evaluate Phase):
PURPOSE: To determine both the effectiveness and efficiency of the curriculum.
Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)

FOLLOW-UP ON COMPLETERS (Evaluate Phase):
FOLLOW-UP ON COMPLETERS (Evaluate Phase):
PURPOSE: To determine the long-range effectiveness and usefulness of the system
Organizational Analysis
An organizational 'analysis is used to determine just what it is the organization should look like to best accomplish its mission. The focus is on (1) verifying that the various components of the organization (division, departments, sections, etc.) are designed and connected in the best possible way to get the organization where it scants to go and (2) specifying meaningful outcomes that will lead to mission accomplishment. An organizational analysis also looks at all the supports (e.g., policies, equipment, trained people, etc.) that need to be in place to ensure that people can do their jobs effectively.
Human Factors Analysis
These analyses are intended to find out how best to design equipment so that it will fit the human beings expected to use it. The purpose is to find out hose to make the equipment “user friendly," easy to use, and idiot-proof. For example, a great deal of human factors analysis is done in the design of aircraft cockpits, not so much to make them comfortable for the pilots but to make information instantly available to them when they need it. Whatever the specific intent, the general intent is to find ways to improve human performance
Critical Incident Analysis
This procedure (sometimes called a significant incident analysis) attempts to answer the question, “What isn't happening according to expectation?" By collecting and analyzing incidents of deviations from the expected (accidents, for example), it is possible to determine what actions might be taken to remedy (reduce or eliminate) the incidents, sometimes the remedy is information, sometimes it is instruction, and sometimes it involves actions such as color-coding equipment or clarifying directions.
Performance Analysis
The performance analysis is used to determine why people are doing something they are supposed to be doing or why they are doing something they shouldn't be doing. It helps one to select solutions that will eliminate a performance discrepancy (the difference between what is happening and what should be happening). The analysis consists of evaluating the size or importance of a performance discrepancy, then determining whether the discrepancy exists because of a lack of skill or motivation to perform a known skill or because of obstacles that prevent the desired performance from occurring
Goal Analysis
People are often expected to perform in ways that are not reflected in tasks. In addition to performing certain skills, they are expected to “appreciate music," “show respect for school," “develop a proper customer attitude," or “take pride in their work.” Since it isn't possible to watch them developing or appreciating, and if these states are important for them to achieve, how will you proceed? How will you decide if instruction will help them to achieve the desired state? And if it will, how will you decide what kind of Instruction to organize. The function of goal analysis is to define the indefinable, to tangibilitate the intangible-to help you say what you mean by your important but abstract goals.
Target Population Analysis
An act that is wasteful of human motivation, as well as of time and money is that of “teaching" people things they already know. The target population analysis helps to eliminate this problem. This technique consists of a careful examination of the characteristics (abilities, education, interests, biases, experience) of those for whom instruction is intended. With this information available, it is possible to select instruction for any individual by subtracting what the individual already knows from what the individual needs to know. The remainder can then be prescribed as the curriculum for that individual, The information revealed by the target population analysis is also useful in adjusting the examples, the language, the media mix through which the instruction and practice are presented, and the speed of the instruction, so that they more closely match the needs of the people for whom the instruction is intended.
Job Analysis
A job consists of a collection of tasks. Sometimes this is a fixed collection of tasks that can be carefully described and sometimes the boundaries of the job are intended to be flexible (e.g. “Your job title is Corporate Troubleshooter, and your job is to do what you think needs to be done'”). A job analysis is intended to identify the tasks that should define a job, to name and describe the tasks that will best serve the organization (as defined by the organizational analysis) in producing the desired accomplishments (outcomes).
Task Analysis
If the performance analysis indicates that people do not know how to do what they need to be able to do, instruction is usually, but not always, needed as a remedy. When instruction appears to be a solution, the next question to be answered is “What should the instruction accomplish?" The task analysis is one way to derive the answer to this question. This technique reveals the components of competent performance-that is, it provides a step-by-step look at how competent people perform a task, so that decisions can more easily be made about
Definition of Performance Analysis (Front End Analysis)
Performance analysis has been defined as “analyzing human performance problems systematically and identifying their root causes” (Rothwell & Kazanas, 1998, p. 33). Others refer to performance analysis as front end analysis.
Definition of Performance Gap
The performance gap is the difference between the current performance (what is) and the desired performance (what should be). This performance discrepancy is viewed as the ‘problem’.
When analyzing performance, ask these questions:
• What is the problem or issue that you are to solve?
• Does this problem impact performance?
• Does it impact the organization?
• Is it worth solving?
• What is the gap between the actual performance and the desired performance?
• What are the symptoms of the problem?
• What are the causes of the problem?
• Will training solve the problem?
Cognitive Behavior: Do employees have the necessary facts and information to perform?
Cognitive behavior includes what the employee knows and understands. It is important because people usually perform better if they understand what they are doing. When there is a gap in an employee’s knowledge, that employee owns the problem.
Psychomotor Behavior: Can employees do the actions associated with successful job performance?
Skills include the abilities to do something—such as operate a machine. Are employees physically and mentally capable of performing the tasks? Do they require special talent?
Affective Behavior: Are people motivated to perform? How do people feel about their behavior? Is there adequate incentive to perform?
Attitudes are measurements of how people feel about what they do, and if they feel they are properly compensated for their performance.
Environment: What systems and conditions outside of the employee may contribute to the problem
Do employees have the needed equipment and tools? Does the structure of the organization support the employee to perform?
In determining if the root cause of a problem is training related, ask this question: Given the current situation, could people perform correctly if their life depended on it? If yes, then it is probably not a training issue. If they have the required skills and knowledge, why aren’t they performing? Could it be the environment? Could it be attitudes? If it is not a training issue then we stop here and select another kind of intervention rather than training.
Suspected Root Causes of the Problem.
Root causes of the problem can include deficits in knowledge (cognitive behavior), skills/actions (psychomotor behavior), attitude/motivation/incentive (affective behavior), and/or the environment
Symptoms of the Problem
What specific things are happening that leads you and/or others to believe there is a problem (e.g., employee turnover has increased, customer complaints have increased, etc.)?
Performance Problem Analysis
Once the root cause has been identified, performance problems can be stated in terms of human behavior. That is, deficits in cognitive, psychomotor, or affective behavior of deficits in the work environment. Keep in mind that all problems are not bad or negative although that is how they are frequently viewed.
Task Listing Sheet
A task listing sheet contains a group of related tasks, sometimes organized in related areas called duties. Tasks may be related functionally, by similar products/services produced, by use of similar types of equipment/materials, by similarities in knowledge/skills required, or various combinations. Task listing sheets may serve as the basis for breaking training curricula into units (i.e., lessons, courses, workshops, seminars, modules).
Frequency of Performance, Importance and Learning Difficulty – FID
Each task should be analyzed to determine how frequently it is performed in the normal course of completing the job. Some tasks are repetitive in nature, whereas some occur very infrequently. Identifying the frequency of performing a task can assist in the development of good instruction. The number of time a task is completed per day may be used, or some other descriptive method such as frequently, very rarely, continuously, once a week, etc. The Department of Energy uses a coding system of very, moderate, and infrequent.
Origins of ISD
Originated as a quick fix for performance problems in the work of active duty military members
Analyze
The who, what, where, when, why and by whom of the design process. It includes the analysis of needs, goals and objectives, trainees’ profiles, delivery systems, and resources and constraints
Design
The planning state. It consists of the following: developing instructional objectives, identifying learning steps required, developing tests to show mastery of the tasks to be trained, listing entry behaviors required, developing the sequence and structure of the course.
Develop
The phase in which training materials and content are selected and developed based on learning objectives. This phase includes development of: the instructional management plan; training materials; training methods; program evaluation materials; and training documentation
Implement
The phase during which the course is taught and evaluated.
Evaluate
The ongoing process of developing and improving instructional materials based on evaluations conducted during and following implementation.
ISD Major Characteristics
Training requirements are expressed in terms of specific job performance criteria.
Empirical evaluation is part of the development process and is used to improve training programs.
ISD procedures identify the best strategies, media, and sequencing for training.
The process is team oriented.
The components of ISD follow an orderly and flexible sequence.
Competency-Based Education
Focused on the achievement of work-based competencies
Knowledge, skills, or attitudes necessary for job-related tasks
Applications of ISD
Comprehensive Problem-Solving
Situation Specific Needs Analysis
Job Description Development
Performance Evaluation
Writing RFPs and Responding to Proposals
Instructional Design as a Profession
An emerging profession
Focused on establishing and maintaining efficient and effective human performance
Guided by a model of human performance
Carried out systematically
Based on open systems theory
Oriented to finding and applying the most cost effective solution to human performance problems
Bloom’s Taxonomy (cognitive)
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (cognitive)
Remembering
Understanding
Applying
Analyzing
Evaluating
Creating
Krathwohl’s Taxonomy (affective)
Receiving
Responding
Valuing
Organizing
Characterizing
Dave’s Taxonomy
Imitation
Manipulation
Precision
Articulation
Naturalization
Only Justification for Training
The only justification for instruction is that one or more people cannot yet do something they need to do or want to do.
Questions to Consider
What skills and information are necessary to address identified needs?
What knowledge does the expert have that is essential for the task?
What related subject content should be taught?
How can the subject content be organized?
How is a task analyzed to identify its components and then, to sequence the actions required?
Task
Is an observable, measurable unit of work performed on the job by one worker in a specific period of time.
Represents one or more of the three domains of human behavior.
Knowledge
Skill
Attitude
Is an imperative sentence, containing a verb, an object, and modifying information.
Components of Task Analysis
Information Gathering
Occupational Information
Job Description/Task Listing
O*Net
Military Careers On-Line
Industry Information
Components of Task Analysis
Topic Analysis
Content Structure
Analyzing an Topic
Procedural Analysis
Steps or Details
Cognitive Analysis
Critical Incident Method
Process Analysis
Topic Analysis
Content Structure
Content is classified into discrete categories.
Categories are:
Facts
Concepts
Principles and rules
Procedures
Interpersonal skills
Attitudes
Topic Analysis
Identifying a topic
Identify topics.
Ask SME to describe topics.
Identify the facts, concepts, procedures, principles, interpersonal skills, and attitudes.
Procedural Analysis
Task: a series of steps leading to a meaningful outcome.
Meaningful outcome??
O*Net Examples

Detail/Step: one of the actions that need to be taken in order to accomplish the meaningful outcome.
Procedural Analysis
Cognitive Analysis
Used to analyze psychomotor tasks that have a cognitive component.
Steps:
Identify 3-5 broad steps.
Conduct a knowledge audit.
Conduct a simulation interview.
Create a cognitive demands table.
Task Analysis Procedure
Prepare a task listing.
Prepare a task detailing.
Identify prerequisite knowledge and skills.
Writing Task Statements
Action Verb = observable behavior that has no endings, (s, ing)
Object = answers the question what or whom
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Verb Object

Define learning.
Paint house.
Salute the flag.
Prerequisite Knowledge and Skills
Knowledge
Skills
Abilities
Attitudes
Experience
Certification/Licensure/Clearances
Physical Demands/Strength Factor
Physical Demands
Strength Factor
Sedentary
Light
Medium
Heavy
Very Heavy
Physical Demands (other factors)
Climbing
Balancing
Stooping
Kneeling
Crouching
Crawling
Reaching
Handling
Fingering
Feeling
Talking
Hearing
Tasting/Smelling
Near Acuity
Field of Vision
Critical Incident Method
Is used for analyzing a work process, such as how to conduct an interview, resolve an interpersonal conflict, or close a sales opportunity.
Determines which conditions lead to success and which conditions lead to un successful accomplishment to goals.
Questions to Consider
What is the problem or issue that you are to solve?
Does this problem impact performance?
Does it impact the organization?
Is it worth solving?
What is the gap between the actual performance and the desired performance?
What are the causes of the problem?
Will training solve the problem?
Performance Analysis
AKA front-end analysis
Performance Gap
the difference between the current performance (what is) and the desired performance (what should be)
Performance Problem Ownership
Symptoms of the problem
Suspected root causes of the problem
Cognitive Behavior
Psychomotor Behavior
Affective Behavior
Environment
Suspected Root Cause(s)
Cognitive Behavior
Do employees have the necessary facts and information to perform?
Affective Behavior
Are people motivated to perform? How to people feel about their behavior? Is there adequate incentive to perform?
Suspected Root Cause(s)
Psychomotor Behavior
Can employees do the actions associated with successful job performance?
Environment
Do employees have the needed equipment and tools? Does the structure of the organization support the employee to perform?
Alternatives to Instruction
Feedback methods
Job performance aids
Reward systems
Employee selection practices
Organizational redesign
An instructional objective is…
A statement that defines the benefits of instruction by identifying what the learner is to accomplish.
Functions of Objectives
Offer a means to design effective instruction
Provide a framework for evaluating student learning
Guide to learner in identifying they skills and knowledge they must master
Objective Domains
Cognitive
Psychomotor
Affective
Cognitive Objectives
Describe goals related to knowledge, naming, solving, predicting, and other intellectual aspects of learning. Receive the most attention in instructional programs.
May be classified according to Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Recall (knowledge level)
Intellectual activities (comprehension level and higher)
Cognitive Domain
Behavioral Objectives
Are well suited for mastery learning instruction.
Cognitive Objectives
Are well suited for higher levels of learning.
To write objectives…
Answer this question.
Precisely, what behaviors can the learner demonstrate to indicate that he or she has mastered the knowledge specified?
Include these essential parts.
Action verb
Subject content reference
Level of achievement
Conditions of Performance
Consider including enabling or supporting objectives.
Where do these come from?
To write cognitive objectives…
Include two parts
General Objective (GO) -- Use the verbs associated with the six levels of the Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Specific Objective (SO) -- Use verbs related to each level of the Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Psychomotor Objectives
Describe goals related to the physical activities of performing, manipulating and constructing.
Contain 3 characteristics.
May be classified according to Dave’s Taxonomy.
Characteristics
Condition
Performance
Criteria
Example: Given a regulation baseball, home team, opposing team, home plate umpire, and a baseball field, the pitcher will throw a fast ball at 90 miles per hour in the strike zone.
Performance
An objective must state what it is that learners must do to demonstrate their mastery of the objective.
It must be visible or audible.
Objectives must be about intended outcomes, not processes.

Examples of doing or hearing verbs/words?
Conditions
Conditions describe the givens and/or limitations within which the performance is supposed to occur.
Conditions include what:
an individual will use (e.g., tools, forms, etc.).
an individual will not use (e.g., checklists or other aids).
real-world conditions the individual will be expected to perform.
Criterion
A standard of success against which to test the success of instruction.
Students (employees) will know how to judge their performance.
You can prove that your students (employees) can DO what you set out to teach them.
Criterion have to do with:
Time
Quantity
Accuracy
Quality
Where do criteria come from?
Job requirements
Improvement requirements
Academic requirements
Personal experience
Affective Objectives
Describe goals related to attitudes, appreciations, values, and emotions such as enjoying, conserving, and respecting.
Receive the least amount of attention, although believed to be very important to education and training.
May be classified according to Krathwohl’s Taxonomy.
To write affective behaviors…
Specify behaviors indirectly by inferring from observable behavior.
Include two parts
Identify the cognitive component that describes the attitude.
Identify a behavior that when observed would represent the attitude.
Purposes of Evaluation
To determine student success in learning.
Three types of evaluation contribute to this purpose.
Formative Evaluation
Summative Evaluation
Confirmative Evaluation
Evaluation and Instructional Objectives
Methods of evaluation are used to determine to what extent the objectives of the course are achieved.
Develop evaluation instruments right after writing the objectives.
Match type of assessment and type of objective.
Use several sources of data.
Matching Measures to Objectives
Achievement on a written test says little about ability to perform desired skills.
Verbatim recall of facts from a list is a lower-level measure of learning.
Specific measure used should generate valid results.
The Match: Cognitive Learning
Central to most instructional programs
How do we measure cognitive learning?
Objective Tests
Multiple Choice
True/False
Matching
Constructed-Response Tests
Short Answer
Essay
Problem Solving
The Match: Psychomotor Learning
Examination of overt actions that can be directly observed.
How do we measure psychomotor learning?
Direct Testing
Analysis of Naturally Occurring Results
Rating Behavior through Direct Observation
Checklists
Authentic Tests
The Match: Affective Learning
Feelings, values, and beliefs are very private matters that cannot be measured directly. They are inferred through words and behavior.
How do we measure affective learning?
Observation and Anecdotal Records
Assessment of Behavior
Attitude Survey
Interview
Validity and Reliability
Validity
The test measures what it is supposed to measure.
Reliability
The test produces consistent results whenever it is used.
The Role of the Self-Check
Successful learning is enhanced when individuals receive feedback on how well they are learning as instruction takes place.
Program Description
A program description provides an overview of the content and activities, including who will benefit.
Naming Instructional Units
Use the gerund (or ing) form of the verb.
Use general topic name.
Other……
Sequencing Instructional Units
Learner-Related Sequencing
World-Related Sequencing
Concept-Related Sequencing
Content Expertise Sequencing
Task Expertise Sequencing
Sequencing Objectives
Chronological
Topical
Whole to part
Part to whole
Known to unknown
Unknown to known
Step by step
Part to part to part
General to specific
A Picture of Work
Work Defined….
Something one is making, doing, or acting upon, especially as part of one’s occupation
A Picture of Work
Three Types of Behavior
Cognitive
Psychomotor
Affective
A Picture of Work
Outcomes of Work
Outcomes of Work
Services
Products
Information
Code of Ethical Standards
Responsibilities to…
Others
Organization
Profession
Society
Social Mandates
Respecting the Rights of Others
Professional Practices
Venues for Work Education
Educational Organizations
Public Education
Community and Technical Colleges
Higher Educational Institutions
Private Business and Industry
Community Based Organizations
Local, State, and Federal government
Non-profit Organizations
Human Service Organizations
Military Service Organizations
Competency Based ETD is based on course, unit, and lesson objectives. If objectives are task or skill types, then testing is performance in nature and may take the form of:
1. A written test when the performance is of a problem-solving type with only one answer possible per problem.
2. A product review using some form of product scale criteria when observance of the product can be done to determine whether the job was done properly.
3. A process checklist when performance must be observed to determine if the final product was properly completed.
4. A combination of process checklist and product test.
24. Types of learner Characteristics as suggested by Heinich, Molenda, Russell, and Smaldino.
a. General – Gender, age, education
b. Specific entry – Prerequisite skills and attitudes
c. Learning – How individuals approach learning task and process information.
There are at least nine approaches to sequencing performance objectives (Rothwell &
Kazanas, 1998):
1. Chronological sequencing
2. Topical sequencing
3. Whole-to-part sequencing
4. Part-to-whole sequencing
5. Known-to-unknown sequencing
6. Unknown-to-known sequencing
7. Step-by-step sequencing
8. Part-to-part-to-part sequencing
9. General-to-specific sequencing
Who is in the instructional design process
a. Instructional designer
b. Instructor
c. SME
d. Evaluator
The 9 Components of ISD
1. Instructional Problems
2. Learning Characteristics
3. Task Analysis
4. Instructional Objectives
5. Content Sequencing
6. Instructional Strategies
7. Designing the Message
8. Development of Instruction
9. Evaluation Instruments
The fundamental components of Instructional design.
a. Objectives
b. Learners
c. Methods
d. Evaluation
Identifying instructional problems
Needs assessment, Performance Assessment, Goal Analysis
The goal analysis process
first identifies aims. Then establishes, refines, and prioritizes goals
Needs:
1. Normative Needs –target audience against a national standard.
2. Comparative Needs – target group to peer group.
3. Felt Needs – desire or want to improve
4. Expressed Needs – (Bradshaw) –Felt need turned into action.
5. Anticipated or Future Needs
6. Critical Needs – (Mager) – Based on failures
Instructional theory as informed by learning theory, defines
the core teaching strategies to be incorporated in the lesson or training unit.
The systematic method of implementing the instructional design process
is termed instructional design,
Combination Model
An approach that meets the needs of teachers and administrators, but which is not quite as flexible as the previous model, is a method of developing and sequencing instruction in several standardized processes.
Core Learning Model
Another approach is based on the process of having all students use one or more core learning experiences and allow them to supplement with additional methods.
Learning Resources Model
If the learning resources are available, it is often helpful to include the media and methods of instruction as a key-planning component.
Self-Pacing Model
In the previous model, addition was shown as a discrete unit.
However, one must break the learning of most skills down to smaller units of instruction, as you would have to in order to teach addition.
Cumulative Model
Some skills must be learned in a certain order and no other.
Stepwise Model
When developing instruction for such an exercise, the developer may want to keep the job tasks in their proper sequence, but still allow the students to proceed from the simple to the complex.
Course Content Sequencing Models
1. Job Performance Order.
2. Psychological Order
3. Logical Order.
Taxonomy
is a method of sequential classification on different levels.
Jean Piaget’s cognitive
focuses on how individuals perceive, process, store, and retrieve information that they receive from the environment.
ISD (Instructional Design Process
is a systematic planning method that results in successful learning and performance.
Dave’s Psychomotor Descriptors (IMPAN)
The levels of the psychomotor variables of behavior are based on the concept of coordination. These behaviors include muscular action and require neuromuscular coordination. The levels are defined as:
Imitation - Observes skill and attempts to repeat it.
Manipulation - Performs skill according to instruction rather than observation.
Precision - Reproduces a skill with accuracy, proportion, and exactness; usually performed independent of original source.
Articulation - Combines more than one skill in sequence with harmony and consistency.
Naturalization - Completes one or more skills with ease and becomes automatic with limited physical or mental exertion.
Krathwohl’s Affective Descriptors (RRVOC)
Receiving - Sensitivity to the existence of certain phenomena and stimuli.
(I’m listening.)
Responding - Active attention to stimuli, e.g., compliance and commitment to rules and practices. (I’m thinking.)
Valuing - Consistent belief and attitude of worth held about a phenomenon.
(I agree.)
Organization - Organizing, interrelating, and analyzing different relevant values. (I’ll try it.)
Characterization - a value or value complex. (It’s the only way.)
Bloom’s Cognitive Taxonomy (KCAASE)
Knowledge - Recall of specifics, patterns, structures, etc.
Comprehension - Understanding of materials being communicated, without necessarily relating it to other material.
Application - The use of abstractions in particular, concrete situations.
Analysis - The breaking down of information into its elements.
Synthesis - Putting together of elements and parts to form structure (whole).
Evaluation - Judging the value of material for a given purpose.
The following figures summarize the taxonomies of human behavior:
a. Bloom (cognitive) – Objectives related to information or knowledge, naming, solving, predicting, and other intellectual aspects of learning.
b. Krathwohl (affective) - Objectives concerning attitudes, appreciations, values, and emotions such as enjoying, conserving, and respecting.
c. Dave (psychomotor) – Encompasses the skills requiring the use and coordination of skeletal muscles, as in the physical activities of performing, manipulating and constructing.