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140 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Human Performance vs. Organizational Performance
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inter-related, organizational performance and human performance focus on different kinds of performance. Organizational performance is expressed in terms of a mission, vision, and goals. Then, organizations identify strategies to reach the mission, vision, and goals.
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Organizational performance
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measured by outputs—such as productivity (e.g., units produced), time (e.g., meeting schedules), costs (e.g., meeting budget), and quality (e.g., error rates) (Bassi & Russ-Eft, 1997)
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Human performance
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expressed in terms of individual competencies. The following model for Organizational Performance Improvement is based on a model copyrighted by ICF International
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Human performance
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Human performance problems are commonly expressed as a performance gap. A performance gap exists when there is a difference between what an employee is doing – the actual – and what that employee should be doing – the ideal (Mager, 1997; Rothwell & Kazanas, 1998).
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The instructional design process
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The instructional design process focuses on IMPROVING human performance
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Instructional design
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field of study and an emerging profession focused on maintaining and improving human performance in organizations. Maintaining and improving human performance in organizations includes the implementation of instructional and non-instructional solutions to related problems (Rothwell & Kazanas, 1998).
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Biswalo (2001) identified five major characteristics of ISD
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1. Training requirements are expressed in terms of specific job performance criteria.
2. Empirical evaluation is part of the development process; evaluation data is used to improve training programs. 3. ISD procedures identify the best strategies, media, and sequencing for training. 4. The process is team oriented. 5. The components of ISD follow an orderly and flexible sequence. |
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Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
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a valid method for curriculum development that focuses on an instructional solution to a performance gap and, then, determines if the gap is closed (Macchia, 1992). By focusing specifically on the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed at work, job performance is potentially improved. ISD originated as a quick fix for performance problems in the work of active duty military members.
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Applications of ISD
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Comprehensive Problem Solving, Situation Specific Needs Analysis, Job Description Development, Performance Evaluation, Writing RFPs and Responding to Proposals
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Comprehensive Problem Solving
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This application of the ISD model focuses on the analysis and design components. This approach is appropriate when much information should be reviewed quickly, and a full-scale instructional design project is required. It is a top-down process. It is based on the premise that human performance problems are based in organizational performance problems (Rothwell & Kazanas, 1998). The result of this application of the ISD model is a comprehensive education and training structure, and/or non-instructional solutions to performance problems
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Situation Specific Needs Analysis
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This application of the ISD model is focused on the analysis and design components. This approach to ISD is appropriate for troubleshooting management requests to solve specific organizational problems. It is based in the premise that after gathering as much information as possible about the problem, instructional designers gain the support of key decision makers in implementing a solution to the problem (Rothwell & Kazanas, 1998). The result of this application of the ISD model is education and training customized to a specific need
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Job Description Development
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The analysis component of the ISD model is used to identify and validate the responsibilities allocated to individual employees in an organization. “What people do— their work—is central to organizational structure and performance” (Rothwell & Kazanas, 1998, p. 117). Through the ISD process, job content, prerequisite knowledge, skills, and experience, conditions and standards of performance are identified. The result of this application of the ISD model is information from which a current, valid job description can be written. This document can be used to advertise, screen, and select employees, as well as, monitor performance.
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Performance Evaluation
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The evaluation component of the ISD model is used to determine if employees have achieved their established performance target. This target is expressed as a task statement and corresponding performance objective terms. Through three types of information—conditions, performance, and standard of performance—objective decisions can be made about an individual’s work. Through evaluation, employee, student and/or trainer can determine if an objective has been reached and what action should be taken next (Mager, 1997).
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Writing RFPs and Responding to Proposals
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Through the analysis component of ISD, a Request for Proposal (RFP) can be written to identify and validate a training need in the public and private sectors. Through use of the five components, proposals to address an RFP can be written. A proposal is a “document that offers to solve a problem for a reader or group of readers by providing specified goods and/or services at a specified cost of in exchange for something else” (Bowman & Branchaw, 1992, p. 2). Because proposals are solicited documents, they are competitive in nature and require the careful and creative use of the ISD process.
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ADDIE
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ADDIE is frequently presented as synonymous with ISD and sometimes know as the Systematic Approach to Training (SAT). It is a 5-component system (Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate) that works to address human performance problems.
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Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
CONDUCT A FEASIBILITY STUDY |
CONDUCT A FEASIBILITY STUDY - Needs or Front End (Analysis Phase):
PURPOSE: To determine if there is a need for a curriculum to be created. |
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Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
DEVELOP A TASK LIST (Analysis Phase): |
DEVELOP A TASK LIST (Analysis Phase):
PURPOSE: To identify and list the tasks performed in an occupation |
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Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
CONDUCT A TASK ANALYSIS (Analysis Phase): PURPOSE |
CONDUCT A TASK ANALYSIS (Analysis Phase):
PURPOSE: To identify the steps, skills and knowledge required for job performance at entry level, intermediate, and advanced level. |
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Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
DEVELOP MEASURABLE OBJECTIVES (Design Phase): |
DEVELOP MEASURABLE OBJECTIVES (Design Phase):
PURPOSE: To state what students are expected to learn as a result of the instruction |
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Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
DEVELOP AND VERIFY CRITERION INSTRUMENTS (Design Phase): |
DEVELOP AND VERIFY CRITERION INSTRUMENTS (Design Phase):
PURPOSE: To develop a series of measurement materials which determine whether students are learning the objectives. |
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Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
DEVELOP LEARNING ACTIVITY PACKAGES (Design & Develop Phases): |
DEVELOP LEARNING ACTIVITY PACKAGES (Design & Develop Phases):
PURPOSE: To develop materials that present information to students based upon the measurable objectives. |
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Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
VALIDATE INDIVIDUAL LAP (Develop Phase): |
VALIDATE INDIVIDUAL LAP (Develop Phase):
PURPOSE: To determine if the instructional materials teach the students for whom they were intended. |
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Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
SEQUENCE LEARNING ACTIVITIES (Develop Phase): |
SEQUENCE LEARNING ACTIVITIES (Develop Phase):
PURPOSE: To determine if objectives are developed at the correct performance level and presented in the correct sequence. |
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Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
IMPLEMENT AND TEST THE SYSTEM (Implement & Evaluate Phases): |
IMPLEMENT AND TEST THE SYSTEM (Implement & Evaluate Phases):
PURPOSE: To test the effectiveness of the entire system, including the instructional materials, teaching guides, etc. |
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Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
EVALUATE/IMPROVE (Evaluate Phase): |
EVALUATE/IMPROVE (Evaluate Phase):
PURPOSE: To determine both the effectiveness and efficiency of the curriculum. |
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Major Activities in Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
FOLLOW-UP ON COMPLETERS (Evaluate Phase): |
FOLLOW-UP ON COMPLETERS (Evaluate Phase):
PURPOSE: To determine the long-range effectiveness and usefulness of the system |
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Organizational Analysis
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An organizational 'analysis is used to determine just what it is the organization should look like to best accomplish its mission. The focus is on (1) verifying that the various components of the organization (division, departments, sections, etc.) are designed and connected in the best possible way to get the organization where it scants to go and (2) specifying meaningful outcomes that will lead to mission accomplishment. An organizational analysis also looks at all the supports (e.g., policies, equipment, trained people, etc.) that need to be in place to ensure that people can do their jobs effectively.
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Human Factors Analysis
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These analyses are intended to find out how best to design equipment so that it will fit the human beings expected to use it. The purpose is to find out hose to make the equipment “user friendly," easy to use, and idiot-proof. For example, a great deal of human factors analysis is done in the design of aircraft cockpits, not so much to make them comfortable for the pilots but to make information instantly available to them when they need it. Whatever the specific intent, the general intent is to find ways to improve human performance
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Critical Incident Analysis
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This procedure (sometimes called a significant incident analysis) attempts to answer the question, “What isn't happening according to expectation?" By collecting and analyzing incidents of deviations from the expected (accidents, for example), it is possible to determine what actions might be taken to remedy (reduce or eliminate) the incidents, sometimes the remedy is information, sometimes it is instruction, and sometimes it involves actions such as color-coding equipment or clarifying directions.
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Performance Analysis
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The performance analysis is used to determine why people are doing something they are supposed to be doing or why they are doing something they shouldn't be doing. It helps one to select solutions that will eliminate a performance discrepancy (the difference between what is happening and what should be happening). The analysis consists of evaluating the size or importance of a performance discrepancy, then determining whether the discrepancy exists because of a lack of skill or motivation to perform a known skill or because of obstacles that prevent the desired performance from occurring
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Goal Analysis
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People are often expected to perform in ways that are not reflected in tasks. In addition to performing certain skills, they are expected to “appreciate music," “show respect for school," “develop a proper customer attitude," or “take pride in their work.” Since it isn't possible to watch them developing or appreciating, and if these states are important for them to achieve, how will you proceed? How will you decide if instruction will help them to achieve the desired state? And if it will, how will you decide what kind of Instruction to organize. The function of goal analysis is to define the indefinable, to tangibilitate the intangible-to help you say what you mean by your important but abstract goals.
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Target Population Analysis
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An act that is wasteful of human motivation, as well as of time and money is that of “teaching" people things they already know. The target population analysis helps to eliminate this problem. This technique consists of a careful examination of the characteristics (abilities, education, interests, biases, experience) of those for whom instruction is intended. With this information available, it is possible to select instruction for any individual by subtracting what the individual already knows from what the individual needs to know. The remainder can then be prescribed as the curriculum for that individual, The information revealed by the target population analysis is also useful in adjusting the examples, the language, the media mix through which the instruction and practice are presented, and the speed of the instruction, so that they more closely match the needs of the people for whom the instruction is intended.
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Job Analysis
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A job consists of a collection of tasks. Sometimes this is a fixed collection of tasks that can be carefully described and sometimes the boundaries of the job are intended to be flexible (e.g. “Your job title is Corporate Troubleshooter, and your job is to do what you think needs to be done'”). A job analysis is intended to identify the tasks that should define a job, to name and describe the tasks that will best serve the organization (as defined by the organizational analysis) in producing the desired accomplishments (outcomes).
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Task Analysis
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If the performance analysis indicates that people do not know how to do what they need to be able to do, instruction is usually, but not always, needed as a remedy. When instruction appears to be a solution, the next question to be answered is “What should the instruction accomplish?" The task analysis is one way to derive the answer to this question. This technique reveals the components of competent performance-that is, it provides a step-by-step look at how competent people perform a task, so that decisions can more easily be made about
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Definition of Performance Analysis (Front End Analysis)
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Performance analysis has been defined as “analyzing human performance problems systematically and identifying their root causes” (Rothwell & Kazanas, 1998, p. 33). Others refer to performance analysis as front end analysis.
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Definition of Performance Gap
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The performance gap is the difference between the current performance (what is) and the desired performance (what should be). This performance discrepancy is viewed as the ‘problem’.
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When analyzing performance, ask these questions:
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• What is the problem or issue that you are to solve?
• Does this problem impact performance? • Does it impact the organization? • Is it worth solving? • What is the gap between the actual performance and the desired performance? • What are the symptoms of the problem? • What are the causes of the problem? • Will training solve the problem? |
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Cognitive Behavior: Do employees have the necessary facts and information to perform?
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Cognitive behavior includes what the employee knows and understands. It is important because people usually perform better if they understand what they are doing. When there is a gap in an employee’s knowledge, that employee owns the problem.
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Psychomotor Behavior: Can employees do the actions associated with successful job performance?
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Skills include the abilities to do something—such as operate a machine. Are employees physically and mentally capable of performing the tasks? Do they require special talent?
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Affective Behavior: Are people motivated to perform? How do people feel about their behavior? Is there adequate incentive to perform?
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Attitudes are measurements of how people feel about what they do, and if they feel they are properly compensated for their performance.
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Environment: What systems and conditions outside of the employee may contribute to the problem
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Do employees have the needed equipment and tools? Does the structure of the organization support the employee to perform?
In determining if the root cause of a problem is training related, ask this question: Given the current situation, could people perform correctly if their life depended on it? If yes, then it is probably not a training issue. If they have the required skills and knowledge, why aren’t they performing? Could it be the environment? Could it be attitudes? If it is not a training issue then we stop here and select another kind of intervention rather than training. |
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Suspected Root Causes of the Problem.
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Root causes of the problem can include deficits in knowledge (cognitive behavior), skills/actions (psychomotor behavior), attitude/motivation/incentive (affective behavior), and/or the environment
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Symptoms of the Problem
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What specific things are happening that leads you and/or others to believe there is a problem (e.g., employee turnover has increased, customer complaints have increased, etc.)?
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Performance Problem Analysis
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Once the root cause has been identified, performance problems can be stated in terms of human behavior. That is, deficits in cognitive, psychomotor, or affective behavior of deficits in the work environment. Keep in mind that all problems are not bad or negative although that is how they are frequently viewed.
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Task Listing Sheet
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A task listing sheet contains a group of related tasks, sometimes organized in related areas called duties. Tasks may be related functionally, by similar products/services produced, by use of similar types of equipment/materials, by similarities in knowledge/skills required, or various combinations. Task listing sheets may serve as the basis for breaking training curricula into units (i.e., lessons, courses, workshops, seminars, modules).
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Frequency of Performance, Importance and Learning Difficulty – FID
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Each task should be analyzed to determine how frequently it is performed in the normal course of completing the job. Some tasks are repetitive in nature, whereas some occur very infrequently. Identifying the frequency of performing a task can assist in the development of good instruction. The number of time a task is completed per day may be used, or some other descriptive method such as frequently, very rarely, continuously, once a week, etc. The Department of Energy uses a coding system of very, moderate, and infrequent.
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Origins of ISD
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Originated as a quick fix for performance problems in the work of active duty military members
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Analyze
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The who, what, where, when, why and by whom of the design process. It includes the analysis of needs, goals and objectives, trainees’ profiles, delivery systems, and resources and constraints
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Design
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The planning state. It consists of the following: developing instructional objectives, identifying learning steps required, developing tests to show mastery of the tasks to be trained, listing entry behaviors required, developing the sequence and structure of the course.
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Develop
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The phase in which training materials and content are selected and developed based on learning objectives. This phase includes development of: the instructional management plan; training materials; training methods; program evaluation materials; and training documentation
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Implement
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The phase during which the course is taught and evaluated.
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Evaluate
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The ongoing process of developing and improving instructional materials based on evaluations conducted during and following implementation.
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ISD Major Characteristics
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Training requirements are expressed in terms of specific job performance criteria.
Empirical evaluation is part of the development process and is used to improve training programs. ISD procedures identify the best strategies, media, and sequencing for training. The process is team oriented. The components of ISD follow an orderly and flexible sequence. |
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Competency-Based Education
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Focused on the achievement of work-based competencies
Knowledge, skills, or attitudes necessary for job-related tasks |
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Applications of ISD
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Comprehensive Problem-Solving
Situation Specific Needs Analysis Job Description Development Performance Evaluation Writing RFPs and Responding to Proposals |
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Instructional Design as a Profession
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An emerging profession
Focused on establishing and maintaining efficient and effective human performance Guided by a model of human performance Carried out systematically Based on open systems theory Oriented to finding and applying the most cost effective solution to human performance problems |
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Bloom’s Taxonomy (cognitive)
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Knowledge
Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation |
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Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (cognitive)
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Remembering
Understanding Applying Analyzing Evaluating Creating |
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Krathwohl’s Taxonomy (affective)
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Receiving
Responding Valuing Organizing Characterizing |
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Dave’s Taxonomy
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Imitation
Manipulation Precision Articulation Naturalization |
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Only Justification for Training
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The only justification for instruction is that one or more people cannot yet do something they need to do or want to do.
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Questions to Consider
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What skills and information are necessary to address identified needs?
What knowledge does the expert have that is essential for the task? What related subject content should be taught? How can the subject content be organized? How is a task analyzed to identify its components and then, to sequence the actions required? |
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Task
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Is an observable, measurable unit of work performed on the job by one worker in a specific period of time.
Represents one or more of the three domains of human behavior. Knowledge Skill Attitude Is an imperative sentence, containing a verb, an object, and modifying information. |
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Components of Task Analysis
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Information Gathering
Occupational Information Job Description/Task Listing O*Net Military Careers On-Line Industry Information |
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Components of Task Analysis
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Topic Analysis
Content Structure Analyzing an Topic Procedural Analysis Steps or Details Cognitive Analysis Critical Incident Method Process Analysis |
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Topic Analysis
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Content Structure
Content is classified into discrete categories. Categories are: Facts Concepts Principles and rules Procedures Interpersonal skills Attitudes |
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Topic Analysis
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Identifying a topic
Identify topics. Ask SME to describe topics. Identify the facts, concepts, procedures, principles, interpersonal skills, and attitudes. |
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Procedural Analysis
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Task: a series of steps leading to a meaningful outcome.
Meaningful outcome?? O*Net Examples Detail/Step: one of the actions that need to be taken in order to accomplish the meaningful outcome. |
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Procedural Analysis
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Cognitive Analysis
Used to analyze psychomotor tasks that have a cognitive component. Steps: Identify 3-5 broad steps. Conduct a knowledge audit. Conduct a simulation interview. Create a cognitive demands table. |
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Task Analysis Procedure
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Prepare a task listing.
Prepare a task detailing. Identify prerequisite knowledge and skills. |
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Writing Task Statements
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Action Verb = observable behavior that has no endings, (s, ing)
Object = answers the question what or whom ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ Verb Object Define learning. Paint house. Salute the flag. |
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Prerequisite Knowledge and Skills
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Knowledge
Skills Abilities Attitudes Experience Certification/Licensure/Clearances Physical Demands/Strength Factor |
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Physical Demands
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Strength Factor
Sedentary Light Medium Heavy Very Heavy |
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Physical Demands (other factors)
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Climbing
Balancing Stooping Kneeling Crouching Crawling Reaching Handling Fingering Feeling Talking Hearing Tasting/Smelling Near Acuity Field of Vision |
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Critical Incident Method
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Is used for analyzing a work process, such as how to conduct an interview, resolve an interpersonal conflict, or close a sales opportunity.
Determines which conditions lead to success and which conditions lead to un successful accomplishment to goals. |
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Questions to Consider
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What is the problem or issue that you are to solve?
Does this problem impact performance? Does it impact the organization? Is it worth solving? What is the gap between the actual performance and the desired performance? What are the causes of the problem? Will training solve the problem? |
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Performance Analysis
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AKA front-end analysis
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Performance Gap
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the difference between the current performance (what is) and the desired performance (what should be)
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Performance Problem Ownership
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Symptoms of the problem
Suspected root causes of the problem Cognitive Behavior Psychomotor Behavior Affective Behavior Environment |
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Suspected Root Cause(s)
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Cognitive Behavior
Do employees have the necessary facts and information to perform? Affective Behavior Are people motivated to perform? How to people feel about their behavior? Is there adequate incentive to perform? |
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Suspected Root Cause(s)
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Psychomotor Behavior
Can employees do the actions associated with successful job performance? Environment Do employees have the needed equipment and tools? Does the structure of the organization support the employee to perform? |
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Alternatives to Instruction
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Feedback methods
Job performance aids Reward systems Employee selection practices Organizational redesign |
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An instructional objective is…
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A statement that defines the benefits of instruction by identifying what the learner is to accomplish.
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Functions of Objectives
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Offer a means to design effective instruction
Provide a framework for evaluating student learning Guide to learner in identifying they skills and knowledge they must master |
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Objective Domains
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Cognitive
Psychomotor Affective |
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Cognitive Objectives
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Describe goals related to knowledge, naming, solving, predicting, and other intellectual aspects of learning. Receive the most attention in instructional programs.
May be classified according to Bloom’s Taxonomy. Recall (knowledge level) Intellectual activities (comprehension level and higher) |
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Cognitive Domain
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Behavioral Objectives
Are well suited for mastery learning instruction. Cognitive Objectives Are well suited for higher levels of learning. |
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To write objectives…
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Answer this question.
Precisely, what behaviors can the learner demonstrate to indicate that he or she has mastered the knowledge specified? Include these essential parts. Action verb Subject content reference Level of achievement Conditions of Performance Consider including enabling or supporting objectives. Where do these come from? |
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To write cognitive objectives…
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Include two parts
General Objective (GO) -- Use the verbs associated with the six levels of the Bloom’s Taxonomy. Specific Objective (SO) -- Use verbs related to each level of the Bloom’s Taxonomy. |
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Psychomotor Objectives
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Describe goals related to the physical activities of performing, manipulating and constructing.
Contain 3 characteristics. May be classified according to Dave’s Taxonomy. |
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Characteristics
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Condition
Performance Criteria Example: Given a regulation baseball, home team, opposing team, home plate umpire, and a baseball field, the pitcher will throw a fast ball at 90 miles per hour in the strike zone. |
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Performance
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An objective must state what it is that learners must do to demonstrate their mastery of the objective.
It must be visible or audible. Objectives must be about intended outcomes, not processes. Examples of doing or hearing verbs/words? |
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Conditions
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Conditions describe the givens and/or limitations within which the performance is supposed to occur.
Conditions include what: an individual will use (e.g., tools, forms, etc.). an individual will not use (e.g., checklists or other aids). real-world conditions the individual will be expected to perform. |
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Criterion
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A standard of success against which to test the success of instruction.
Students (employees) will know how to judge their performance. You can prove that your students (employees) can DO what you set out to teach them. |
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Criterion have to do with:
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Time
Quantity Accuracy Quality |
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Where do criteria come from?
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Job requirements
Improvement requirements Academic requirements Personal experience |
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Affective Objectives
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Describe goals related to attitudes, appreciations, values, and emotions such as enjoying, conserving, and respecting.
Receive the least amount of attention, although believed to be very important to education and training. May be classified according to Krathwohl’s Taxonomy. |
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To write affective behaviors…
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Specify behaviors indirectly by inferring from observable behavior.
Include two parts Identify the cognitive component that describes the attitude. Identify a behavior that when observed would represent the attitude. |
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Purposes of Evaluation
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To determine student success in learning.
Three types of evaluation contribute to this purpose. Formative Evaluation Summative Evaluation Confirmative Evaluation |
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Evaluation and Instructional Objectives
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Methods of evaluation are used to determine to what extent the objectives of the course are achieved.
Develop evaluation instruments right after writing the objectives. Match type of assessment and type of objective. Use several sources of data. |
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Matching Measures to Objectives
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Achievement on a written test says little about ability to perform desired skills.
Verbatim recall of facts from a list is a lower-level measure of learning. Specific measure used should generate valid results. |
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The Match: Cognitive Learning
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Central to most instructional programs
How do we measure cognitive learning? Objective Tests Multiple Choice True/False Matching Constructed-Response Tests Short Answer Essay Problem Solving |
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The Match: Psychomotor Learning
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Examination of overt actions that can be directly observed.
How do we measure psychomotor learning? Direct Testing Analysis of Naturally Occurring Results Rating Behavior through Direct Observation Checklists Authentic Tests |
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The Match: Affective Learning
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Feelings, values, and beliefs are very private matters that cannot be measured directly. They are inferred through words and behavior.
How do we measure affective learning? Observation and Anecdotal Records Assessment of Behavior Attitude Survey Interview |
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Validity and Reliability
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Validity
The test measures what it is supposed to measure. Reliability The test produces consistent results whenever it is used. |
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The Role of the Self-Check
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Successful learning is enhanced when individuals receive feedback on how well they are learning as instruction takes place.
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Program Description
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A program description provides an overview of the content and activities, including who will benefit.
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Naming Instructional Units
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Use the gerund (or ing) form of the verb.
Use general topic name. Other…… |
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Sequencing Instructional Units
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Learner-Related Sequencing
World-Related Sequencing Concept-Related Sequencing Content Expertise Sequencing Task Expertise Sequencing |
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Sequencing Objectives
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Chronological
Topical Whole to part Part to whole Known to unknown Unknown to known Step by step Part to part to part General to specific |
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A Picture of Work
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Work Defined….
Something one is making, doing, or acting upon, especially as part of one’s occupation |
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A Picture of Work
Three Types of Behavior |
Cognitive
Psychomotor Affective |
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A Picture of Work
Outcomes of Work |
Outcomes of Work
Services Products Information |
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Code of Ethical Standards
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Responsibilities to…
Others Organization Profession Society Social Mandates Respecting the Rights of Others Professional Practices |
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Venues for Work Education
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Educational Organizations
Public Education Community and Technical Colleges Higher Educational Institutions Private Business and Industry Community Based Organizations Local, State, and Federal government Non-profit Organizations Human Service Organizations Military Service Organizations |
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Competency Based ETD is based on course, unit, and lesson objectives. If objectives are task or skill types, then testing is performance in nature and may take the form of:
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1. A written test when the performance is of a problem-solving type with only one answer possible per problem.
2. A product review using some form of product scale criteria when observance of the product can be done to determine whether the job was done properly. 3. A process checklist when performance must be observed to determine if the final product was properly completed. 4. A combination of process checklist and product test. |
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24. Types of learner Characteristics as suggested by Heinich, Molenda, Russell, and Smaldino.
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a. General – Gender, age, education
b. Specific entry – Prerequisite skills and attitudes c. Learning – How individuals approach learning task and process information. |
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There are at least nine approaches to sequencing performance objectives (Rothwell &
Kazanas, 1998): |
1. Chronological sequencing
2. Topical sequencing 3. Whole-to-part sequencing 4. Part-to-whole sequencing 5. Known-to-unknown sequencing 6. Unknown-to-known sequencing 7. Step-by-step sequencing 8. Part-to-part-to-part sequencing 9. General-to-specific sequencing |
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Who is in the instructional design process
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a. Instructional designer
b. Instructor c. SME d. Evaluator |
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The 9 Components of ISD
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1. Instructional Problems
2. Learning Characteristics 3. Task Analysis 4. Instructional Objectives 5. Content Sequencing 6. Instructional Strategies 7. Designing the Message 8. Development of Instruction 9. Evaluation Instruments |
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The fundamental components of Instructional design.
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a. Objectives
b. Learners c. Methods d. Evaluation |
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Identifying instructional problems
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Needs assessment, Performance Assessment, Goal Analysis
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The goal analysis process
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first identifies aims. Then establishes, refines, and prioritizes goals
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Needs:
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1. Normative Needs –target audience against a national standard.
2. Comparative Needs – target group to peer group. 3. Felt Needs – desire or want to improve 4. Expressed Needs – (Bradshaw) –Felt need turned into action. 5. Anticipated or Future Needs 6. Critical Needs – (Mager) – Based on failures |
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Instructional theory as informed by learning theory, defines
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the core teaching strategies to be incorporated in the lesson or training unit.
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The systematic method of implementing the instructional design process
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is termed instructional design,
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Combination Model
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An approach that meets the needs of teachers and administrators, but which is not quite as flexible as the previous model, is a method of developing and sequencing instruction in several standardized processes.
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Core Learning Model
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Another approach is based on the process of having all students use one or more core learning experiences and allow them to supplement with additional methods.
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Learning Resources Model
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If the learning resources are available, it is often helpful to include the media and methods of instruction as a key-planning component.
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Self-Pacing Model
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In the previous model, addition was shown as a discrete unit.
However, one must break the learning of most skills down to smaller units of instruction, as you would have to in order to teach addition. |
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Cumulative Model
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Some skills must be learned in a certain order and no other.
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Stepwise Model
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When developing instruction for such an exercise, the developer may want to keep the job tasks in their proper sequence, but still allow the students to proceed from the simple to the complex.
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Course Content Sequencing Models
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1. Job Performance Order.
2. Psychological Order 3. Logical Order. |
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Taxonomy
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is a method of sequential classification on different levels.
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Jean Piaget’s cognitive
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focuses on how individuals perceive, process, store, and retrieve information that they receive from the environment.
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ISD (Instructional Design Process
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is a systematic planning method that results in successful learning and performance.
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Dave’s Psychomotor Descriptors (IMPAN)
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The levels of the psychomotor variables of behavior are based on the concept of coordination. These behaviors include muscular action and require neuromuscular coordination. The levels are defined as:
Imitation - Observes skill and attempts to repeat it. Manipulation - Performs skill according to instruction rather than observation. Precision - Reproduces a skill with accuracy, proportion, and exactness; usually performed independent of original source. Articulation - Combines more than one skill in sequence with harmony and consistency. Naturalization - Completes one or more skills with ease and becomes automatic with limited physical or mental exertion. |
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Krathwohl’s Affective Descriptors (RRVOC)
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Receiving - Sensitivity to the existence of certain phenomena and stimuli.
(I’m listening.) Responding - Active attention to stimuli, e.g., compliance and commitment to rules and practices. (I’m thinking.) Valuing - Consistent belief and attitude of worth held about a phenomenon. (I agree.) Organization - Organizing, interrelating, and analyzing different relevant values. (I’ll try it.) Characterization - a value or value complex. (It’s the only way.) |
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Bloom’s Cognitive Taxonomy (KCAASE)
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Knowledge - Recall of specifics, patterns, structures, etc.
Comprehension - Understanding of materials being communicated, without necessarily relating it to other material. Application - The use of abstractions in particular, concrete situations. Analysis - The breaking down of information into its elements. Synthesis - Putting together of elements and parts to form structure (whole). Evaluation - Judging the value of material for a given purpose. |
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The following figures summarize the taxonomies of human behavior:
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a. Bloom (cognitive) – Objectives related to information or knowledge, naming, solving, predicting, and other intellectual aspects of learning.
b. Krathwohl (affective) - Objectives concerning attitudes, appreciations, values, and emotions such as enjoying, conserving, and respecting. c. Dave (psychomotor) – Encompasses the skills requiring the use and coordination of skeletal muscles, as in the physical activities of performing, manipulating and constructing. |