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Front 1

Physiological systems of animals function in

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A fluid environment

Front 2

Relative concentrations of water and solutes must be contained within

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Fairly narrow limits

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Osmoregulation

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Regulate solute concentrations and balances the gain and loss of water

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Freshwater animals show adaptations that

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Reduce water uptake and conserve solutes

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Desert and marine animals face desiccating environment that can

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Quickly deplete body water

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Excretion

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Get rid of nitrogenous metabolites and other waste products

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Osmoregulation is based on

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Controls movement of solids between internal fluids and the external environment

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Osmolarity

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The solute concentration of a solution

Front 9

Osmolarity determines

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The movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane

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If two solutions are isoosmotic the movement of water is

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Equal in both directions

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Is two solutions that differ in osmolarity the net flow of water is from

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The hypoosomatic to the hyperosmotic solution

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Osmoconformers

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Isoosmotic with their surroundings and do not regulate osmolarity

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Osmoregulators

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Expend energy to control water uptake and prevent loss in the hyperosmotic or hypo osmotic environment

Front 14

Most marine invertebrates are

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Osmoconformers

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Most marine vertebrates and some invertebrates are

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Osmoregulators

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Marine bony fishes are hypo osmotic to seawater because

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They lose water by osmosis and gain salt by diffusion and from food

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Marine bony fishes balance water loss by

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Drinking sea water and excreting salts

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Adaptations to reduce water loss are key to

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Survival on land

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Body coverings of most terrestrial Animals help prevent

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Dehydration

Front 20

Desert animals get major water savings from

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Simple anatomical features and behaviors such as a nocturnal lifestyle

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Land animals maintain water balance by

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Eating moist food and producing water metabolically through cellular respiration

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Osmoregulators must expend energy to maintain

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Osmotic gradients

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Amount of energy used to keep osmotic gradient up differs based on

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Front 24

Transport epithelia

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Are epithelial cells that are specialized for moving solutes in specific directions

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Transport epithelia are typically arranged in

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Complex tubular Networks

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The type and quantity of an animal's waste products make greatly affect its

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Water balance

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Among the most significant wastes are

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Nitrogenous breakdown products of protein and nucleic acid

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Some animals convert toxic ammonia (NH3) to

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Less toxic compounds prior to excretion

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Animals excrete nitrogenous waste in different forms

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Ammonia, urea, or uric acid

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Ammonia and urea and uric acid differ in

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Toxicity and the energy cost of producing them

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Animals that excrete nitrogenous wastes as ammonia need

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Access to lots of water

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The liver of mammals and mosy adult amphibans converts ammonia to the less toxic

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Urea

Front 33

Conversion of ammonia to urea is energetically expensive but

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The excretion of urea requires less water than ammonia

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Insects and land snails and many reptiles including Birds mainly excretes

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Uric acid

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In order of greatest to least the more energetically expensive ways to excrete nitrogenous wastes are

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Ammonia to urea to uric acid

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Uric acid is

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Relatively non-toxic and does not dissolve readily in water it's can also be secreted as a paste with little water bottles

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An animal's evolutionary history and habitats and water availability and immediate environment of the animal egg effect

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The kinds of nitrogenous waste excreted

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The amount of nitrogenous waste is coupled into the animals

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Energy budget

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Excretory systems regulate

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Solute movements between internal fluids and the external environment

Front 40

Most excretory systems produce urine by

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Refining the filtrate derived from body fluids

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The key functions of most excretory systems are

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Filtration and reabsorption and secretion and excretion

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Filtration

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Filtering of body fluids

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Re-absorption

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Reclaiming valuable solutes

Front 44

Secretion

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Adding non essentials solutes and wastes from the body fluids to the filtrate

Front 45

Excretion

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Processed filtrate containing nitrogenous wastes is released from the body

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Systems that perform basic excretory functions very widely in animal groups but

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Usually involve a complex network of tubules

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Kidneys are the excretory organs of vertebrates and function

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Excretion and osmoregulation

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The tubules of kidneys are

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Highly organized and numerous

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The filtrate that contains salts and glucose and amino acids and vitamins and nitrogenous wastes and other small molecules is made in

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Bowman's capsule

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Re-absorption of ions and water and nutrients takes place in

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The proximal tubule

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Molecules are transported actively and passively from the filtrate to the

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Interstitial fluid and then capillaries

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As the filtrate passes through the proximal to materials to be excreted become

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Concentrated

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Some toxic materials are

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Actively secreted into the filtrate

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Reabsorption of water continues through channels formed by

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Aquaporin proteins

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Reabsorption of water is driven by the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid which is hyperosmotic to the

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Filtrate this also causes the filtrate to become more concentrated in the descending limb of the loop of henle

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In the ascending limb of the loop of henle salt but not water is able to diffuse from the tubule into the

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Interstitial fluid which makes the filtrate become dilute

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The distal tube regulate potassium and salt concentration of

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Body fluids

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The controlled movements of ions H+ and bicarbonate contributes to

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PH regulation

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The collecting duct carries filtrate through the medulla to the

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Renal pelvis

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One of the most important tasks of the collecting duct is reabsorption of

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Solutes and water

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Urine is hyperosmotic to

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Body fluids

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Energy is expended to actively transports salts from the filtrate in the

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Upper part of the ascending limb of the loop of henle

Front 63

The counter-current multiplier system

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Involves the loop of henle and maintains a high salt concentration in the kidney

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The counter-current multiplier system allows the Vasa recta to supply the kidney with nutrients without interfering with the

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Osmolarity gradient

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In the collecting duct osmosis extract water from the filtrate as it passes from the cortex to the medulla and encounters

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Interstitial fluid of increasing osmolarity

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Urine produced is ISO osmotic to the interstitial fluid of the inner medulla but hyperosmotic to

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Blood and interstitial fluid elsewhere in the body

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The juxtamedullary Nephron is key to water conservation

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Terrestrial animals

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Mammals that inhabit dry environment have

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Long Loops of henle

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Mammals can control the volume and osmolarity of urine in response to changes in

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Salt intake and water availability

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A combination of nervous and hormonal controls manage the osmo regularity functions of

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The mammalian kidney

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Nervous and hormonal controls in the kidney contribute to homeostasis for

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Blood pressure and blood volume

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ADH is also called

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Vasopressin

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Osmoreceptors cells in the hypothalamus monitor blood osmolarity and regulates the release of

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ADH from the posterior pituitary

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When osmolarity rises above its set point ADH release into the bloodstream

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Increases

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Binding ADH to receptor molecules leads to a temporary increase in the number of aquaporin proteins in the membrane of collecting duct cells which

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Reduces urine volume and lowers blood osmolarity

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Alcohol is a diuretic as it inhibits

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The release of ADH

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Mutation in ADH production causes severe hydration and results in diabetes which

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Increases urine production

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ADH stands for

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Antidiuretic hormone

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RAAS stands for

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Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

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JGA means

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Juxtaglomerular apparatus

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RAAS is a part of a complex feedback circuit that functions in

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Homeostasis

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A drop in blood pressure near the glomerulus causes the JGA to release

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The enzyme renin

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Brennen triggered the formation of a peptide

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Angiotensin 2

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Angiotensin 2

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Raises blood pressure and decreases blood flow to the kidneys it also stimulates the release of the hormone aldosterone

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Aldosterone increases

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Blood volume and pressure

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ADH and raas both increase water reabsorption but only raas

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Will respond to a decrease in blood volume

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Another hormone ANP opposes the raas by being released in response to

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An increase in blood volume and pressure to inhibit the release of renin

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ANP means

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Atrial natriuretic peptide

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Most mammals are stenohaline meaning

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They cannot tolerate substantial changes in external osmolarity

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Euryhaline animals can survive large fluctuations in

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External osmolarity