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Pathogens

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Agent that causes disease

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Immune system

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Recognizes foreign bodies and responds with the production of immune cells and proteins

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Innate immunity

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A defense active immediately upon infection that all animals have

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Immunity that develops after exposure to agent such as microbes and toxins or other foreign substances

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Adaptive or acquired immunity

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Innate immunity response to a broader range of pathogens while adaptive immunity

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Involves a very specific response to pathogens

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In vertebrates innate immunity is

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A First Response it also serves the foundation of adaptive immunity

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Innate immunity is found

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In all animals and plants

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An exoskeleton made of chitin forms the first. To pathogens in

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Insects

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Lysozyme

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An enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls used as defense by invertebrates

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Phagocytosis

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The ingestion and digestion of foreign substances including bacteria

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Hemocytes secrete antimicrobial peptides that describes the plasma membranes of

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Fungi and bacteria

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The immune system recognizes bacteria and fungi based on

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The structures on their cell walls

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Innate immune responses are

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Distinct four different classes of pathogens

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Natural killer cells and interferons and the inflammatory response are all

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Defenses unique to vertebrates

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Barrier defenses and phagocytosis and antimicrobial peptides are all

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Innate defenses

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The skin and mucous membranes of the respiratory and urinary and reproductive tracts are all

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Barrier defenses

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Mucus trapped and allows for the

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Microbes

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Body fluids like saliva mucus and tears are

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Hostile too many microbes

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The growth of many bacteria is prevented by

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The low pH of skin and the digestive system system

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Pathogens enter in the mammalian body are subjected to

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Phagocytosis

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Toll-like receptors or tlr

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Recognize fragments of molecules characteristic of a set of pathogens

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Phagocytic cells recognize groups of pathogens using

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Toll-like receptors

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Two main types of phagocytic cells in the mammalian body

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Neutrophils and macrophages

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Neutrophils

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Are phagocytic cells that Engulf and Destroy pathogens

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Macrophages

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Are phagocytic cells found throughout the body

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Dendritic cells

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Are phagocytic cells that stimulate development of adaptive immunity

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Natural killer cells

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Circulate throughout the body and detect abnormal cells they released chemical is leaving to sell them inhibiting the spread of viral infection or cancer cells

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Cellular innate defenses involved the

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Lymphatic system

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Peptides and proteins function in innate defense by

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Attacking pathogens or impeding their reproduction

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Interferon proteins

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Provide innate defense by interfering with viruses and helping activate macrophages

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Complement system

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A system of about 30 proteins which cause lysis of invading cells and helps trigger inflation

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Inflammatory response

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Pain and swelling brought about by molecules released upon injury of infection

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Mast cells

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A type of connective tissue that releases histamine

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Histamine

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Triggers blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable

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Activated macrophages and neutrophils release cytokines signaling molecules that

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Enhance immune response

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Enhance blood flow to the site of injury helps deliver antimicrobial peptides that results in an accumulation of

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Pus which is the fluid rich in white blood cells and dead pathogens and cell debris from damaged tissues

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Inflammation can either be

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Local or systemic which is throughout the body

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Fever is

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A systemic inflammatory response triggered by substances released by macrophages in response to certain pathogens

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Septic shock

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Is a life-threatening condition caused by an overwhelming inflammatory response

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Some pathogens avoid destruction by

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Modifying their service to prevent recognition or by resisting breakdown following phagocytosis

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Adaptive response relies on two types of

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Lymphocytes, or white blood cells

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Lymphocytes that mature in the thymus above the heart are called

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T cells

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Lymphocytes that mature in bone marrow are called

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B cells

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Antigens

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Substances that can elicit a response from a b or T cell

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T or B cells bind to antigens through

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Antigen receptors specific to a part of one molecule of a pathogen

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Epitope

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The small accessible part of an antigen that binds to an antigen receptor

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Each individual b or T cell is specialized to recognize

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Specific type of molecule

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Antigen receptors of B & T cells have similar components but

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The encounter antigens in different ways

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Each B cell antigen receptor is a y-shaped molecule with

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Two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains

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The constant regions of light and heavy chains very little amongst B cells whereas

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The variable regions differ greatly which provide antigen specificity

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Binding of a b-cell antigen receptor to an antigen is an early step in b cell activation that gives rise to cells that

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Secretes a soluble forum of the protein cause antibody or immunoglobulins

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Antibodies have the same y shape as b-cell antigen receptors butt

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Are secreted and not membrane-bound

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Each t cell receptor consists of two different

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Polypeptide chains called Alpha and beta

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The tips of the chains on T cells receptors are

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Variable regions well the rest is a constant region

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T cell and B cell antigen receptors

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Are functionally different

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T cells bind antigen fragments displayed or presented on a host cell. These antigen fragments are bound to cell surface proteins called

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MCH molecule

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MCH or major histocompatibility complex molecules AR

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Host proteins that display the antigen fragments on the cell surface

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In infected cells MCH molecules find and transport antigen fragments to the cell surface which is a process called

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Antigen presentation

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A T-cell combined both antigen fragments and MHC molecules which is necessary for the T Cell to

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Participates in the adaptive immunity response

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The Adaptive immune system has four major characteristics

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By combining variable elements by rearranging DNA the immune system assembles a diverse variety of

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Antigen receptors

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As lymphocytes mature in bone marrow or thymus they are

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Tested for self reactivity

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If B & T cells have receptors that react to the body's own molecules then

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They destroy themselves through apoptosis which is program cell death or they simply remain unfunctional

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In the lymph nodes an antigen is exposed to a steady stream of lymphocytes until

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An antibody is found that matches the epitope which is the place on the antigen that antigen receptors connect to

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Once A match is found between an antigen receptor and antigen B & T cells activate which thing

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Causes them to undergo multiple cell divisions called clonal selection to produce a clone of identical cells

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Cells from the b or t clone that are short-lived due to acting immediately against the antigen

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Effector cells

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Effector cells are

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Plasma cells that secrete antibodies

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Clone cells that are long-lived AR

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Memory cells that can give rise to effector cells at the same antigen is encountered again

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Immunological memory is responsible for

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Long-term protections against disease

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The first exposure to a specific antigen represents

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Primary immune response

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Memory cells facilitate a faster more efficient response in

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Secondary immune response

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The defense is provided by B & T lymphocytes can be divided into

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Humoral immune response and cell mediated immune response

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Antibodies help neutralize or eliminate toxins and pathogens in the blood and lymph during

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Humoral immune response

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Specialized T-cells destroy infected host cells during

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Cell mediated immune response

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Helper T cell

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Triggers both the humoral and cell-mediated immune responses

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Antigen presenting cells have

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Class 1 and Class 2 MHC molecules on their surfaces

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Class 2 MHC molecules are

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The basis upon which antigen presenting cells AR recognize

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If a helper T cells activated it will then form clones and then

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Activate appropriate B cells

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Cytotoxic T-cells

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Used toxic proteins to kill cells infected by viruses or other intracellular pathogens

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Cytotoxic T-cells recognize fragments of

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produced by infected fragments of

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Activated cytotoxic T-cells secrete proteins that's

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Disrupt the membranes of target cells and triggers apoptosis

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When an antigen bind a b-cell cell the cell takes in

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A few foreign molecules by receptor-mediated endocytosis

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Class 2 MHC proteins of The B cells then presents an antigen fragment to a helper T cell which is

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critical to B Cell Activation

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An activated b-cell gives rise to

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Thousands of identical plasma cells

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Activated plasma cell produce and secrete

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Antibodies

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Antibodies do not kill pathogens they simply

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Mark pathogens for Destruction

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In neutralization antibodies

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Bind to viral surface proteins preventing infection of a host cell

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Antibodies may also bindto toxins in body fluids and

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Prevent them from entering body cells

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In opsonization antibodies

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Bind to antigens on bacteria triggering phagocytosis

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Immunoglobulin d is

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Membrane-bound

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Active immunity

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Develops naturally when a pathogen invades the body and elicit a primary or secondary immune response

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Passive immunity

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Provides immediate and short-term protection. It is transferred from the placenta of the mother to the fetus or through breast milk

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Both active immunity and passive immunity can be induced

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Artificially

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Immunization

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Introduction of antigens in the

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Monoclonal antibodies

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Antibodies that are identical in specific for 1 epitope grown in culture

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Because MHC molecules are different on genetically non identical individuals

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Rejection of tissue grafts and organ transplants occurs

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Allergies are hypersensitive responses to antigens called

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Allergens

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Autoimmune diseases

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The immune system uses tolerance for itself and turns against certain molecules of the body

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Human immunodeficiency virus or HIV

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Infects helper T cells

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Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or Aids

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Acquired due to HIV infection people with AIDS are highly susceptible two infections and Cancer's the take advantage of a collapsed immune system

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15 - 20% of all human cancers

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Involve viruses