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200 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Where are the sympathetic neuron cell bodies found?
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Intermedio-lateral cell column
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Where are the parasympathetic neuron cell bodies found?
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Intermediate spinal cord gray matter
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Where are spinal interneurons mostly found?
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Intermediate zone b/w dorsal & ventral horns
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Which zone of Rexed's Laminae contain the sensory afferents and carry pain information?
What is this zone called? |
Zone 2
Substantia Gelatinosa |
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Where is the dorsal root ganglion found?
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Intervertebral foramen
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What modality refers descrimative touch, propreoception, vibration & some pressure sensation?
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Epicritic
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What modality refers the spinothalamic system which convey's pain & temperature (and some light touch)?
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Protopathic
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What are the spinal cord segments for..
Upper arm? Thumb & forefinger? Middle finger? Little Finger? Nipple? |
C5
C6 C7 C8 T4 |
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What are the spinal cord segments for....
Umbilicus? Big Toe? Heel? Back of Thigh? |
T10
L5 S1 S2 |
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Where specifically do the spinothalamic fibers cross in the spinal cord?
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Anterior White Commissure
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Which motor neurons supply muscle spindles and importrant for giving muscle tone & sense loading force?
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Gamma Motor Neurons
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What is the primary component of the filtration barrier?
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Glomerular basal lamina
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What are the 3 functions of mesangial cells?
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Phagocytosis
Structural Support Secretion in response to injury -> IL-1 |
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What precursors are mesangial cells derived from?
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Smooth muscle precursors
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What cells activate the rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone system by releasing rennin?
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Juxtaglomerular Cells (JG cells)
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What are two important membrane proteins in proximal convoluted tubules?
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Na/K ATPase
AQP-1 |
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What kind of nephrons have the longest loops?
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Juxtamedullary nephrons
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Which part of the renal tubules increases the acidification of urine?
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Distal Convoluted Tubule
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What are the final cells that "tweak" urine?
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Beta intercalating cells
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Where in the kidney is the nephron located?
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Cortex
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What are the two types of cells in Mesegium?
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Mesangial cells
Lacis cells |
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What cells regulate the release of renin by JG cells?
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Macula densa cells
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True or False
The light cells (principal cells) of collecting tubules do not have basal infoldings? |
False, the dark cells do not have infoldings
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The kidney's are primarily innerved by what autonomic which causes vasoconstriction?
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Sympathetic
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Are the ureters retroperitoneal or intraperitoneal?
Are they covered by serosa or adventitia? |
They are embedded in retroperitoneal fat
So are covered by adventitia |
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To correct what visual impairment would you use a convex, converging, or positive diopter?
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Hyperopia
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To correct what visual impairment would you us a concave, diverging, or negative diopter?
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Myopia
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To correct what visual impairment due to an ovular cornea would you use a cylindrical lens?
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Astigmatism
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What do you call blurred near (reading) vision that occurs with aging?
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Presbyopia
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What kind of cataracts cause second sight?
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Nuclear cataracts
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What kind of caracts cause initial improvement of far vision?
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Cortical cataracts
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What is the functional center of the retina?
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Macula
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A person with what condition complains first of central vision loss, b/c the peripheral vision is spared?
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Macular Degeneration
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True or False
Ambylopia is not corrected by glasses? |
True, except refractive ambylopia
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What is the key to the gluteal region?
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Piriformis
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What two muscles does the nerve to obturator internus supply?
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Obturator Internus
Superior Gemellus |
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What spinal cord level is used to determine whether epicritic sensation goes to the fasciculus gracilis or the fasciculus cuneatus?
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T6!! ON TEST
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Do the Fasiculus gracilis & Fasiculus cuneatus convey epicritics or protopathics?
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Epicritics
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What are the two major barriers to filtration in the kidney's?
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Molecular Weight & Radius
Electrical Charge |
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True or False
Insulin normally appears in the ultrafiltrate? |
True
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What trasnmembrane protein prevents proteins and macromolecules that cross the basement membrane from entering the Bowman's space?
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Nephrin
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According to physio, what are the 4 things that contribute to the glomerular filtration barrier?
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Glycocalyx of endothelium
Endothelium Basement membrane Epithelial podocytes |
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What are the two mechanisms responsible for kidney autoregulation?
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Myogenic Response
Tubuloglomerular Feedback |
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What is the main stimulus for the tuboglomerular feedback?
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Increased [Cl] sensed by macula densa cells
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The ability to regulate afferent & efferent arteriolar resistances permits rapid regulation of?
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GFR
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Up to what age can children have normal intermittent ocular misalignment?
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4 Months
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What acuity is defined as legal blindness in the US?
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20/200
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What are 3 acquired defects that can cause defective color vision?
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Macular Disease
Optic Neuritis Occipital Lobe Strokes |
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Which normal visual impairment will have small disc & almost non-existent cup?
Which normal visual impairment will have large disc & more prominent cup? |
Hyperopia
Myopia |
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Pallor of the optic disc is a result of?
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Loss of nerve fibers, which are replaced by astrocytes
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Is sodium reabsorption in the proximal tubule active or passive?
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Secondarily Active b/c relies on Na/K ATPase
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What are the five items that are transported transcellularly with Na in the early proximal tubule?
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Glucose
Hydrogen Carboxylates Amino Acids Inorganic phosphates |
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In the early proximal tubule reabsorption of Na into the interstitium causes what to the voltage of the lumen?
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Makes it more negative
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What 4 ions accompany the paracellulary movement of water (solvent drag) in the early proximal tubule?
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Ca, Na, K, Mg
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Glucose appears in the urine (glucosuria) when plasma concentration rises above?
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250 mg/dl
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Preferential HCO3 absorption occurs where?
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Early Proximal Tubule
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The majority of calcium transport (~65%) is _________, and occurs at the ____________?
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Paracellular
Late Proximal Tubule |
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What channel do you block to treat gout?
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Apical urate/anion exchangers
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What % of water is reabsorbed in the thin descending limb?
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15%
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What is the main apical solute transporter in the thick ascending limb?
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Na/ K /2 Cl co-transporter
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What is the specific tight junction protein that is found in thick ascending limb, which is responsible for the reabsorption of Mg?
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Claudin 16 (Paracellin-1)
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What % of Mg is reabsorbed in the thick ascending limb?
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~70%
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If a patient has bilateral papilledema, with no visual loss, no pain, and no afferent pupil, what is the cause?
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Increased Intracranial Pressure
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If a patient has unilateral papilledema, with central vision loss, pain, and has an afferent pupil defect, what is the cause?
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Optic Neuritis
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If a patient has unilateral papiledema, with monocular blindness, no pain, and an afferent pupil defect, what is the cause?
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Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy (AION)
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Retinal nerves are nourished by?
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Central Retinal Artery or in some the Cilioretinal Artery
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Photoreceptors are nourshed by?
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Choroidal circulation from posterior ciliary artery
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What is the most important regulator of ECaC?
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Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
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What does the kidney's urine concentrating ability depend on?
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A hypertonic interstitium
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What do thiazide diuretics inhibit?
Where? |
Inhibit Na/Cl transporter
Distal Convoluted Tubule |
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At the distal convoluted tubule, reabsorption of water depends on?
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Plasma Arginine Vasopressin []
ADH or AVP |
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What does the diuretic amiloride inhibit?
Where? |
ENaC
PRINCIPAL cells in cortical collecting tubules |
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By pumping salts out of the lumen of tubule segments that are impermeable to water, do you dilute or concentrate urine?
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Dilute
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What are 4 factors that stimulate AVP release?
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Increased plasma osmolality
Decreased effective circulating volume Thirst Stress |
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AVP inserts __________ on the apical and basolateral membrane of _______ cells in _________
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Aquaporin 2
Principal Cells Collecting Duct |
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What is the main cause for the countercurrent multiplier system in the inner medulla?
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Interstitial hypertonicity - created by urea & ions (Na....)
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What are three types of non Mendelian Inheritance?
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Mosciasm
Translocation Maternal inheritance |
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What is the most common eye deviation in childhood?
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Esotropia
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What are 3 mutations that will cause certain pathogenicity?
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Nonsense
Frameshift (deletions or insertions) Altered splice sites |
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In exercise, which hormones will most likely return plasma K+ back to normal?
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Epinephrine
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What two parts of a nephron are affected by ADH/AVP?
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Cortical Collecting Duct
Inner Medullary Collecting Duct |
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What are the 4 factors that shift K into cells?
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Insulin
Epinephrine Aldosterone ECF Alkalosis |
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Administration of Beta 2 agonists such as albuterol, terbutaline or dobutamine to treat asthma will cause hyperkalemia or hypokalemia?
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Hypokalemia
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What is the cell that aldosterone affects?
What are the two things it does? |
Affects principal cells
Enhances Na re-absorption by enhancing the Na/K pump Increases permeability of ENaC = K efflux |
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During potassium depletion, K+ reabsorption is mediated by _________ cells via ____________ transport mechanism that is located on apical membrane of DCT & collecting duct.
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Intercalated cells
H/K ATPase |
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What is the major amino acid that acts as a base in both albumin and hemoglobin?
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Histidine
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Addison's Disease, causes hyper or hypokalemia?
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Hyperkalemia b/c aldosterone fxn is diminished
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What are 4 molecules that H+ can be bound to and excreted?
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Phosphate
Creatinine Urea NH3 |
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What are the 2 factors that regulate H+ secretion/HCO3 reabsorption?
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Change in acid-base balance
Factors that alter Na balance also affect H+ secretion |
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True or False
Increased PCO2 = more acidic pH? |
True
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What is the long term effect in order to regulate increased ECF volume?
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Na excretion
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Increased secretion of what, can lead to hypertension in renal artery stenosis?
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Renin
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What is the main determinant of plasma osmolality?
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Plasma [Na]
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What is the long term effect in order to regulate increased ECF volume?
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Na excretion
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What is the hallmark of nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy?
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Microaneurysms
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What are the two main characteristics of proliferative diabetic retinopathy?
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Neovascularization
Fibrous Proliferation -> Neovascular Glaucoma |
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What is the name for the basic bulk of the anterior lobe of pituitary gland?
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Pars Distalis
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What are the six major hormones produced from the anterior pituitary?
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ACTH - adrenal cortex
TSH - thyroid stimulating hormone FSH - stimulates testicles and follicular dev LH - stimulates both ovary & testis Prolactin - stimulates breast secretion Growth Hormone |
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What is the name of the posterior lobe nerve ending swelling that contain secretory vesicles?
What do they contain? |
Herring bodies
Oxytocin or ADH |
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What is the name of the specialized glial cells associated with posterior lobe capillaries?
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Pituicytes
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What two hormones are produced in the hypothalamus but released in posterior pituitary?
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ADH
Oxytocin |
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In what condition to you see a "cherry red" macula?
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Retinal ischemia due to retinal artery occlusion
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Which kind of drusen is the basis for the beginning of macular degeneration?
What kind of macular degeneration does it precede? |
Soft Drusen
"dry" type Macular Degenaration |
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What rays of the spectrum seem to accelerate macular degeneration?
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Blue - like from very bright light
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What are three major risk factors for the development of macular degeneration?
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Hereditary (most influential)
Hypertension Smoking |
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What are extracellular by-products of retinal metabolism that deposit b/w the RPE & Bruch's membrane?
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Drusen
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What cells make the hormone calcitonin?
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Parafollicular (C cell)
In Thyroid Gland |
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What cells produce parathyroid hormone?
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Chief Cells
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What hormone increases serum calcium & decreases serum phosphate?
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Parathyroid Hormone
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What are the 3 ways PTH works?
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Bone resorption (increased osteoclasts)
Increased tubular reabsorption Increasted intestinal absorption of Ca |
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What are the 4 things that can be palpated on a digital rectal exam?
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Posterior wall of bladder
Seminal Vesicle Prostate Ampulla of ductus deferens |
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What are the 4 observed effects of hypophysectomy irrespective of age?
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Atrophy of thyroid & adrenals
Retardation of metabolic process Asthenia (lack of strength) Cachexia (general ill health & malnutrition) |
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What is the precurosor hormone from corticotrophs in anterior pituitary?
What hormone from hypothalamus stimulates its release? |
POMC
CRH |
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True or False
Hyperthyroidism causes galactorrhea? |
False, Hypothyroidism
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True or False
Prolactinoma decreases sexual function? |
True
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True or False
What hormone inhibits GnRH? |
Prolactin
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What are the five symptoms of diabetes insipidus?
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Polyuria (excess urine production)
Polydipsia (excessive thirst) Hypernatremia (Increased Na levels) Hypotension (decreased BP) Shock |
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What cells are directly stimulated by growth hormone, which leads to the widening of epiphyseal plates -> extends length of long bone?
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Chondrocytes
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What are the three hormones important in the growth of a fetus?
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Insulin
IGF-II hPL (human placental lactogen) |
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What are the hormones that regulate growth after birth?
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Growth Hormone
Thyroid Hormone IGF-I Cortisol Insulin Sex hormones |
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The growth promoting effects of GH are mediated by?
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Somatomedins (aka IGF)
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90% of IGF-I circulates in blood bound to?
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IGF binding proteins (IGFBP)
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What is the main inhibitory molecule released from peripheral organs in order to produce negative feedback of GH?
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Somatomedin
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What is the main inhibitory hormone released from hypothalamus that controls the secretion of Growth Hormone from anterior pituitary?
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Somatostatin (GIH)
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True or False
Acute fall in the levels of glucose or FFA leads to increases in GH secretion? |
True
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What is the most consistent amino acid stimulator for Growth Hormone release?
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Arginine
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What cells produce and secrete melatonin?
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Pinealocytes
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What endocrine gland secretes calcitonin?
What cell specifically does this? |
Thyroid Gland
Parafollicular (C cells) |
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What is the major constituent of colloid which contains the thyroid hormones within its molecule?
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Thyroglobulin
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What is the required amount of ingested iodine to make sufficient amounts of T4?
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50 mg a year
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Thyroglobulin is formed from what organelle?
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
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What amino acid residue in thyroglobulin is iodinated to form MIT & DIT?
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Tyrosine!
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What is the important thyroid enzyme that catalyzes the formation of MIT & DIT?
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Thyroid Peroxidase
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What two neurotransmitters inhibit TSH secretion?
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Somatostatin
Dopamine |
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True or False
Thyroxine is the thyroid hormone of greatest biological activity? |
False, Triiodothyronine has greatest biological activity
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In hypothyroidism will patients have high or low cholesterol?
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High Cholesterol
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What are 3 hormones that are normally growth permissive, but if too much then have catabolic effect?
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Cortisol
PTH Thyroid Hormone |
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In hypothyroidism will patients have high or low cholesterol?
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High Cholesterol
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What are 3 hormones that are normally growth permissive, but if too much then have catabolic effect?
|
Cortisol
PTH Thyroid Hormone |
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Does hypo or hyperthyroidism have increased levels of free T4 but decreased serum levels of TSH?
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Hyperthyroidism
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Are hot or cold nodules more likely to harbor malignancy?
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Cold
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Why does thyroid hormone causes increased heart rate?
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Upregulates adrenergic receptors
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What is the overall effect of PTH on calcium and phosphorus serum levels?
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Increases Ca
Decreases Phosphate |
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What are the two major sites of action of PTH on kidney?
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Thick ascending limb
Distal tubule |
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What is the major target cell for calcitonin action?
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Osteoclast
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What is the major target cell for PTH action?
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Osteoblasts
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What are the two principle hormones involved in bone turnover?
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PTH
1,25-(OH)2-D |
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What are the only follicles present from birth until puberty?
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Primordial follicles
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What two cell layers begin the formation of the corpus luteum?
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Granulosa (major component)
Theca Interna |
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Ovulation is stimulated by a surge of what hormone from the anterior pituitary gland?
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Luteinizing hormone
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What are the layers of the placental interhemal membrane?
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Capillary endothelium w/ basement membrane
Fetal CT of villus Cytotrophoblast w/ basement membrane Syncytiotrophoblast |
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What are the three structures in the neck that ascend during swallowing?
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Thyroid Cartilage
Cricoid Cartilage Thyroid Isthmus |
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What is the name of the sign that manifests as venous congestion and cyanosis of the face due to a substernal goiter when the patient raises their arms?
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Pemberton's sign
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True or False
Hot nodules are almost always benign? |
True
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A Delphian node develops as a result of metastasis from?
|
Thyroid Cancer
Laryngeal Cancer |
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What are the 3 common finding of Grave's disease?
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Exopthalmus
Pretibial Myxedema Hyperthyroidism |
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What cells make the blood-testis barrier and connect to each together by tight junctions?
|
Sertoli Cells
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Which compartment of the blood-testis barrier is the immunologically protected zone?
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Adluminal Compartment
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What cells in the testicular lobules secrete testosterone?
|
Leydig Cells
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Cortisol causes reduction of protein stores in all tissues except?
|
Liver, Heart, Diaphragm
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The largest chemical transformation and inactivation of steroid is carried out in what organ?
|
Liver
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During fasting, glucose must be obtained from the body's carbohydrate supply, which it?
|
Liver
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Glucocorticoids inhibit what two enzymes which usually function to breakdown catecholamines?
|
COMT
MAO |
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Where is epinephrine stored to await secretion?
|
Chromaffin granules
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What enzyme is found only in the adrenal medulla and functions to convert norepinephrine to epinephrine?
|
Phenylethanolamine-N methyl transferase (PNMT)
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What is the largest and most important end-organs for epinephrine & sympathetic nerve stimulation?
|
Aggregate Adipose Tissue
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The synthesis of __________, is the committed step in converting cholesterol to steroid hormones.
|
Pregnenolone (by Cyt. P450 SCC)
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Which part of the epididymis is innervated by adrenergic sympathetic nerves which fire during ejaculation?
What other part is under sympathetic influence? |
Distal Tail
Vas Deferens |
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Where is the enzyme 5 alpha reductase found?
What does it do? |
Stromal cells of prostate
Converts testosterone to 5α-dihyrdrotestosterone (DHT) |
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What zone of the prostate is where most benign prostatic hyperplasia occurs?
|
Transitional Zone
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What zone of the prostate do most prostatic cancers affect?
|
Peripheral Zone
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Where does PSA normally come from?
|
Liver, but in prostatic cancer it comes from prostate
|
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What part of the penis constrains expansion thus allows erection?
|
Tunica albuginea around the corpus cavernosa
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Viagra works by inhibiting what?
|
Phosphodiesterase breakdown of cyclic GMP
|
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What specific GLUT transport maintains glucose concentration in beta cells equal to that of interstitial fluid?
|
GLUT 2
|
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What is the major second messenger involved in glucagon action, which phosphorylates key enzymes in glycolysis & gluconeogensis?
|
PKA
|
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What are two inhibitors of somatostatin release?
|
Insulin
Alpha adrenergic neurotransmitters |
|
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What are the six hormones that contribute to the regulation of blood glucose?
|
Insulin
Glucagon Glucocorticoids (cortisol) Growth Hormone Catecholamines Thyroid hormones |
|
|
What hormones are important for prolonged fasting & reduces glucose utilization in peripheral tissues?
|
Glucocorticoids & GH
|
|
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What are the two most important amino acid stimulators for insulin release?
|
Arginine & Lysine
|
|
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What hormone is important in the short term regulation of blood glucose?
& Protect against acute & severe hypoglycemia? |
Catcholamines
|
|
|
Muscle proteins break down after how many hours of fasting?
|
>24 hrs
|
|
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What are the three effects of insulin on lipid metabolism?
|
Stimulates lipoprotein lipase
Activates LDL receptors Inhibits hormone sensitive lipase |
|
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From what embryonic origin does the thyroid develop from?
|
Endoderm
|
|
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What what embryonic origin does the exocrine and endocrine pancreas develop from?
|
Endoderm
|
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What is the gland responsible for jet lag?
|
Pineal Gland - melatonin
|
|
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From what pharyngeal pouch do parafollicular (C cells) come from?
|
4/5 Pouch
|
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From what pharyngeal pouch does the thymus & inferior parathyroid come from?
|
3rd Pouch
|
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From what pharyngeal pouch does the superior parathyroid come from?
|
4th Pouch
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The ureteric bud sprouts from what duct?
|
Mesonephric Duct
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The collecting ducts come from what duct?
|
Ureteric bud -> Mesonephric Duct
|
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The S-tubule comes from what?
|
Metanephric vesicle
|
|
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What are the three contributers to the baldder?
|
Cloaca (hindgut)
Allantois Mesonephric duct (ureters -> trigone) |
|
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Where do germ cells develop?
|
Yolk sac
|
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What duct leads to the development of the uterus, oviducts, & fornix?
What cell layer is this duct from? |
Paramesonephric (Mullerian) Duct
Mesoderm |
|
|
True or False
Leptin inhibits synthesis & release of Neuropeptide Y? |
True
|
|
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Which energy source has a highest thermo effect?
CHO, Fat, or Proteins? |
Proteins
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|
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What peptide-signaling molecule made by adipose tissue, decreases hepatic glucose production?
|
Adiponectin
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|
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What peptide-signaling molecules made by adipose tissue, reduce the responsiveness of target tissues to insulin?
|
TNF alpha
Resistin |
|
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What is the name of the hypothalamic nucleus which leptin acts on?
|
Arcuate Nucleus
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