2 Human Biology

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Elements

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A substance that cannot be broken down into another substance by ordinary chemical means. Each of the elements are identified by unique symbol on a periodic table. 118 elements exist only 92 of them are naturally occurring

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Periodic table

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List of elements in the order of their atomic numbers. They are arranged so that each element is placed into a group or vertical column and a period or Horizonal row. Elements in the same group have similar chemical characteristics.

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Elements of the human body

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90% of the human body is composed of four elements:

Carbon

Nitrogen

Hydrogen

Oxygen

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Isotopes

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are atoms of the same element that differ in the number of neutrons. They have the same number of protons but they have a different mass number.

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Radioactive

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Nucleus with excess neurons is unstable and may Decay and emit radiation

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Molecule

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A group of atoms bound together. The atom in a molecule can consist of the same elements or different elements.

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Compound

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When the molecule is composed of different elements

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Ion

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When an atom gains or loses an electron the atom becomes charged and is called an ion. Ions may have either a positive or negative charge

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Ionic bonds

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Forms when two atoms are held together by the same attraction between opposite charges.

The reaction between sodium and chlorine atom is an example of how ionic bond is formed

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Covalent bond

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When two atoms share electrons in order to have a complete outer shell.

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Matter

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Anything that takes up space and has mass. Exist in several forms including solids liquids gases or plasma

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Composition of an atom

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Proton, electrons, neutrons

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Protons

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Located inside the nucleus and has a positive charge +

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Electrons

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Located outside the nucleus and have a negative charge

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Neutrons

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Located inside the nucleus and do not have a charge

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Cohesion

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The ability of water molecules to cling to each other due to hydrogen bonding

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Adhesion

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The ability of polar water molecules to cling to Polar substances

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Acids

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Substances that dissolve in water releasing hydrogen ions

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Bases

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Substances that can either take up hydrogen ions or release hydroxide ions

Have a pH value greater than 7

Milk of magnesia and ammonia basic alkaline solutions

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Buffers

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A chemical or a combination of chemicals that keep pH within normal limits by taking up excess hydrogen ions a chemical or a combination of chemicals that keep pH within normal limits by taking up excess hydrogen ions

Human blood is 7.4 pH

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Hydrolysis reations

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A water molecule breaks the bonds holding monomers together. A hydroxyl group from a water molecule attaches to one monomer and a hydrogen atom form another water molecule attaches to another monomer

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Four categories of organic molecules

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Carbohydrates

lipids

proteins

nucleic acids

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Carbohydrates

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Used for immediate energy source, structural support, energy storage. Some types are used for structural purposes

Glucose, cellulose, starch

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Lipids

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Used for insulation, long-term energy storage and cell membrane structure

Fats and oils, phospholipids, cholesterol

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Proteins

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Used for metabolism,support, transport, defense, regulation and motion

Hemoglobin, collagen, Acton myosin

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Nucleic acids

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Used to store information, provide instructions for life, conduct chemical reactions

DNA,RNA, ATP

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Polysaccharides

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Long chains of monosaccharides map function to store energy for organisms or provide structural support for organisms

Both starch and glycogen function and energy storage well cellulose and lignin function in structural support

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Disaccharide

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Contains two monosaccharides linked together through a dehydration reaction. Some common disaccharides are maltose, sucrose, and lactose

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Glucose

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Photosynthetic organisms produce glucose through photosynthesis

Glucose is used in energy making reactions of all cells

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Monosaccharides

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Glucose molecules are simple sugars. Monoccharides can have a carbon backbone consisting of 3 to 7 carbons. Many have hydroxyl groups that are soluble in water, are used to store chemical energy and also found in DNA and RNA molecules

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Carbohydrates class

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Class of macromolecules that may exist as simple sugars called monosaccharides are long chains called polysaccharides

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Cholesterol

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Is a common steroid. It is a component of plasma membrane of animal cells and is the persecutor of the other steroids

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Steroids

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Are lipids that possess a unique carbon skeleton made of four fused rings. They are insoluble in water.

Examples: Cholesterol and the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone

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Fats and oils

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Fats: tend to be an animal origin and are solid at room temperature

Oils: tends to be a plant origin and are liquid at room temperature

Fats and oils are lipids composed of glycerol molecule attached to Three fatty acid chains. They function as a long-term energy storage

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Phospholipids

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Have both Hydrophobic (polar) heads and hydrophobic (nonpolar) tails.

They tend to arrange themselves only the polar heads interact with the watery environment inside and the outer cell, while the nonpolar Tails face inward towards the center of the membrane away from the water

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Lipids

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Are biomolecules that:

consists of fats, oils, phospholipids, steroids, or waxes

Are insoluble in water

Are often composed of long, hydrocarbon chains

Are present in butter, cooking oil, plasma membranes, hormones and protective coverings

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Amino acids

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Are monomers or proteins. All amino acids contain an amino group, a carboxyl (acid) group, and a variable R group

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Proteins secondary structure

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Results when different parts of the peptide backbone of a polypeptide are held together by hydrogen bonding. Otherwise known as Alpha - - helix(top) and another is the beta- pleated sheet (bottom)

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Proteins

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Made from long chains of amino acids. They have a variety of functions in the cell, including support, metabolism, transport, defense, regulation, and motion

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DNA structure

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Double heliac structure. The nucleotide bases are attached inside each backbone at the molecule so that the nucleotides in one strand a hydrogen bonded to the bases in the other strand. The hydrogen bonds hold the two strands of the double helix together. An adrenal and one strand is always paired with rhyming and the other stand and a guanine in one strand is always paired with cytosine in the other

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Nucleotides

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Have a phosphate, a Pentose or 5-carbon sugar and a nitrogen- containing base

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ATP ( adenosine triphosphate)

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Is the most common energy currency in cells. It is composed of a phosphate group attached to a 5-carbon sugar(those) and a nitrogenous base (adenine)

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Energy storage in ATP

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The hydrolysis of the terminal phosphate Bond results in the loss of phosphate group and the release of a large amount of energy. This energy can be used to drive cellular processes within a cell, including the transport of solutes across membranes through active transport, the movement of molecules using motor proteins, or cellular movement.

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Nucleic acids

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DNA and RNA are nucleic acids, polymers consisting of nucleotides monomers. DNA stores genetic material and RNA functions in translating the genetic material into proteins