Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
135 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Where are the kidneys located? |
Retroperitoneal in the superior lumbar region |
|
|
Where do the blood vessels & nerves lie? |
Renal sinus |
|
|
What are the 3 distinct regions of the kidneys? |
1. the cortex 2. the medulla 3. renal pelvis |
|
|
What do the major & minor calyces do? |
collect urine and empty it into the renal pelvis |
|
|
Name the 5 places that blood supply into and out of the kidneys progresses to the cortex through. |
1. renal arteries to segmental 2. lobar 3. interlobar 4. arcuate 5. cortical radiate arteries |
|
|
Name the 4 places that blood supply travels back from the above process. |
1. back to renal veins from cortical radiate 2. arcuate veins 3. interlobar veins |
|
|
What regulates renal blood flow? |
renal plexus |
|
|
What does the nephrons consist of? |
- Glomerulus - Bowman's capsule |
|
|
Define glomerulus |
a renal corpuscle composed of a tuft of capillaries |
|
|
What's another name for Bowman’s capsule? |
glomerular capsule |
|
|
What are the 2 types of nephrons & their %? |
- 85% cortical nephrons - 15% juxtamedullary nephrons |
|
|
Where are the cortical nephrons located? |
almost entirely within the cortex |
|
|
Where are the juxtamedullary nephrons located? |
near the cortex-medulla junction |
|
|
What do the peritubulary capillaries do? |
- drain the glomerulus - absorb solutes & water from the tubules |
|
|
What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus? |
a structural arrangement between the afferent arteriole and the distal convoluted tubule that forms granular cells and macula densa cells |
|
|
Where is the filtration membrane? |
between the blood and the interior of the glomeruar capsule |
|
|
What does the filtration membrane do? |
Allows free passage of water solutes |
|
|
What is glomerular filtration? |
- a passive, non-selective process - hydro-static pressure forces fluids through the glomerular membrane * urine formation* |
|
|
What is the glomerular filtration rate? |
The volume of filtrate formed each minute by all the glomeruli of the kidneys combined |
|
|
Why is Maintenance of a constant glomerular filtration rate is important? |
because reabsorption of water & solutes depends on how quickly filtrate flows through the tubules |
|
|
What keeps the glomerular rate constant? |
1. autoregulatory mechanisms 2. extrinsic hormonal mechanisms 3. neural mechanisms |
|
|
When does tubular re-absorption begin? |
as soon as the filtrate enters the proximal convoluted tubule |
|
|
What is the most abundant cation of the filtrate? |
Na+ & re-absorption is always active |
|
|
What is Passive tubular re-absorption? |
negatively charged ions |
|
|
Where does Obligatory water re-absorption occur? |
in water-permeable regions of the tubules |
|
|
What is secondary active transport responsible for? |
absorption of glucose, amino acids, vitamins, and most cations |
|
|
Where do substances that are not reabsorbed or incompletely reabsorbed remain in? |
- the filtrate due to a lack of carrier molecules, lipid insolubility, or large size - (urea, creatinine, and uric acid) |
|
|
What does the tubular secretion dispose? |
unwanted solutes |
|
|
What does the tubular secretion eliminate? |
solutes that were reabsorbed & excess k+ |
|
|
Where is tubular secretion is most active in & where does it occur? |
- the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) - occurs in the collecting ducts & distal convoluted tubules (DCT) |
|
|
What are Ureters? |
tubes that convey urine from the kidneys to the bladder |
|
|
What are the 3 layers of the bladder? |
1. an outer adventitia 2. a middle layer of detrusor muscle 3. an inner mucosa (highly folded to allow distention of the bladder w/o a large increase in internal pressure) |
|
|
What are two main fluid compartments of the body? |
Intra & extracellular compartments |
|
|
What are the 2 sub-compartments of extracellular fluid? |
1. blood plasma 2. interstital fluid |
|
|
What is the extracellular fluid major cation & major anion? |
major cation: sodium, major anion: chloride |
|
|
What is the intracellular fluid major cation & minor anion? |
major cation: potassium major anion: phosphate |
|
|
What is the most abundant fluid in the body? |
electrolytes |
|
|
What 2 places must substances pass through to reach the intracellular fluid? |
1. plasma 2. interstital fluid |
|
|
What is thirst mechanism triggered by & what does it result in? |
- a decrease in plasma osmolarity - resulting in inhibition of the hypothalamic thrist center |
|
|
What happens when ADH levels are low? |
- most h2o in the collecting ducts is not reabsorbed - resulting in large quantities of dilute urine |
|
|
What happens when ADH levels are high? |
- filtered water is reabsorbed - resulting in a lower volume of concentrated urine |
|
|
What promotes ADH secretions? |
The hypothalamus |
|
|
When does dehydration occur? |
when water output exceeds water intake |
|
|
What is the most important cation and regulation of fluid & electrolyte balance? |
sodium |
|
|
What is the most important trigger for the release of the aldosterone? |
the renin-angiotensin mechanism |
|
|
What causes your body to be in alkalosis? |
arterial blood pH rises above 7.45 |
|
|
What causes your body to be in physiological acidosis? |
arterial blood pH falls below 7.35 |
|
|
What do most hydrogen ions originate as? |
metabolic by products |
|
|
What is a chemical buffer? |
a system of 1 or 2 molecules that acts to resist changes in pH by: - binding H+ when the pH drops or - releasing H+ when the pH rises |
|
|
What is a bicarbonate buffer system? |
the main buffer of the extracellular fluid, - consists of carbonic acid and its salt, sodium bicarbonate |
|
|
What happens when Carbon dioxide from cellular metabolism enters erythrocytes? |
CO2 is converted to bicarbonate ions for transport in the plasma |
|
|
What happens when hypercapnia occurs? |
- Blood pH drops; activating medullary respirator centers -resulting in increased rate & depth of breathing & increased unloading of CO2 in the lungs |
|
|
What happens when blood pH rises? |
- the respiratory center is depressed - allowing CO2 to accumulate in the blood - lowering pH |
|
|
What is the only organ that can rid the body of acids generated by cellular metabolism, while also regulating blood levels of alkaline substances and renewing chemical buffer components? |
The kidneys |
|
|
Which ion can be conserved from filtrate when depleted, and their re-absorption is dependent on H+ secretion? |
Bicarbonate ion |
|
|
Define scrotum |
a sac of skin and superficial fascia that hangs outside the abdominopelvic cavity at the root of the penis and houses the testes |
|
|
The scrotum is how many degrees below the core temperature? |
3 degrees |
|
|
What does the scrotum respond to? |
Temperature changes |
|
|
What is the primary reproductive organ of the male, producing both sperm and testosterone? |
The testes |
|
|
What are the testes divided into? |
lobules with seminiferous tubules inside, where sperm are produced |
|
|
Where are interstitial cells found & what do they produce? |
the connective tissue surrounding the seminiferous tubules & produce testosterone |
|
|
What organ is the copulatory organ, designed to deliver sperm into the female reproductive tract? |
The penis |
|
|
What is the penis made of? |
an attached root & a free shaft or body that ends in the glans |
|
|
What covers the penis & may be slipped back to form a cuff around the glans? |
Prepuce/foreskin |
|
|
What 2 elastic tissues does the penis contain? |
1. the corpus spongiosum 2. the corpora cavernosum |
|
|
What does the epididymis consist of & what does it provide? |
- a highly coiled tube - provides a place for immature sperm to mature & to be expelled during ejaculation |
|
|
What carries sperm from storage sites in the epididymis, through the inguinal canal, over the bladder, and into the ejaculatory duct. |
- vas ductus deferens / vas deferens |
|
|
What is the terminal portion of the male duct system and carries both urine and sperm (not at the same time) to the exterior environment? |
the urethra |
|
|
What lies on the posterior bladder wall and their alkaline secretion accounts for 60% of the volume of semen consisting of fructose, ascorbic acid, a coagulating enzyme (vesiculate), and prostaglandins? |
The seminal vesicles |
|
|
What is the prostate gland responsible for? |
producing a milky, slightly acidic fluid containing citrate, several enzymes, and prostate-specific antigen, making up about one-third of the semen
|
|
|
What does the bulbourethral glands, or Cowper’s glands, produce? |
a thick, clear mucus prior to ejaculation that neutralizes any acidic urine in the urethra |
|
|
Define semen |
a milky white, somewhat sticky mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretions that provides a transport medium for sperm |
|
|
Erection, enlargement, & stiffening of the penis is a result from? |
the engorgement of the erectile tissues with blood triggered during sexual excitement |
|
|
Define ejaculation |
the propulsion of semen from the male duct system triggered by the sympathetic nervous system |
|
|
What is spermatogenesis? |
the series of events in the seminiferous tubules that produce male gametes (sperm or spermatozoa) |
|
|
What does Meiosis consists of? |
- 2 consecutive nuclear divisions - The production of 4 daughter cells with 1/2 as many cells as a normal body cell |
|
|
What does Meiosis 1 reduce? |
the # of chromosomes in a cell from 46 to 23 by separating homologous chromosomes into different cells |
|
|
What does meiosis 2 resemble? |
- mitosis - except the chromatids are separated into 4 cells |
|
|
What does spermatogenisis begins with ? |
the the series of events in the seminiferous tubules that produce male gametes (sperm or spermatozoa) |
|
|
What does each primary spermatocyte undergo? |
- meiosis I to produce two secondary spermatocytes
which then undergo: - meiosis II to form spermatids. |
|
|
What is Spermiogenesis? |
streamlining process that strips the spermatid of excess cytoplasm and forms a tail, resulting in a sperm with a head, a midpiece, and a tail |
|
|
What do The sustentacular cells, or Sertoli cells form? |
a blood-testis barrier that prevents membrane-bound antigens from escaping into the bloodstream |
|
|
What does Brain-testicular axis refer to?
|
the relationship and interactions between the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland, and the testes.
|
|
|
What does the hypothalamus release? |
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which controls the release of the anterior pituitary hormones follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) in males
|
|
|
What does FSH indirectly stimulate? |
spermatogenesis
|
|
|
What does LH, also called interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH), stimulate? |
the interstitial cells to produce testosterone.
|
|
|
What does testosterone acts as? |
a final trigger for spermatogenesis
|
|
|
What inhibits hypothalamic release of GnRH and acts directly on the anterior pituitary gland to inhibit gonadotropin release? |
Testosterone |
|
|
How is Inhibin produced? |
by the sustentacular cells and released when sperm count is high |
|
|
What is testosterone synthesized from? |
cholesterol and exerts its effects by activating specific genes to be transcribed. |
|
|
What does testosterone target? |
accessory organs (ducts, glands, and penis), causing them to grow and assume adult size and function
|
|
|
What does testosterone induce? |
male secondary sex characteristics: pubic, axillary, and facial hair, deepening of the voice, thickening of the skin and increase in oil production, and an increase in bone and skeletal muscle size and mass. III
|
|
|
What is the primary reproductive organs of the female? |
The ovaries |
|
|
What do the ovaries produce? |
the female gametes (ova, or eggs) and the sex hormones (estrogens and progesterone)
|
|
|
Where are the paired ovaries found? |
on either side of the uterus and are held in place by several ligaments
|
|
|
Define ovarian follicles & what they consist of |
- sac-like structures - consist of an immature egg, called an oocyte, encased by one or more layers of different cells |
|
|
What are Follicles at different stages are distinguished by? |
their structure as primordial follicles, primary follicles, secondary follicles, and Graafian or vesicular follicles |
|
|
When does ovulation occur? |
each month in adult women when one of the maturing follicles ejects its oocyte from the ovary |
|
|
What do The ruptured follicle transforms into? |
a glandular structure called the corpus luteum, which eventually degenerates. B |
|
|
What do the uterine tubes, or Fallopian tubes or oviducts form, receive, & provide? |
- form the beginning of the female duct system - receive the ovulated oocyte - provide a site for fertilization to take place |
|
|
What is a hollow, thick-walled muscular organ that functions to receive, retain, and nourish a fertilized ovum? |
The uterus |
|
|
What 4 things is the uterus supported by? |
1. mesometrium 2. the lateral cervical ligaments 3. the uterosacral ligaments 4. the round ligaments |
|
|
What 3 layers is the uterus wall composed of? |
1.the perimetrium 2.the myometrium 3. the endometrium |
|
|
What does the vagina provide? |
a passageway for delivery of an infant and for menstrual blood, and also receives the penis and semen during sexual intercourse |
|
|
What 4 things does the external genitalia ( vulva, or pudendum) include? |
1. the Mons pubis 2. labia 3. clitoris 4.structures associated with the vestibule |
|
|
What are present in both sexes but usually function only in females to produce milk to nourish a newborn baby? |
mammary glands |
|
|
Define mammary glands |
modified sweat glands that are really part of the integumentary system |
|
|
What usually arises from the epithelial cells of the ducts and grows into a lump in the breast from which cells eventually metastasize? |
breast cancer |
|
|
Define oogenesis |
the production of female gametes called oocytes, ova, or eggs |
|
|
When A female’s total egg supply is determined? |
at birth and the time in which she releases them extends from puberty to menopause |
|
|
What happens in the fetal period? |
the oogonia multiply rapidly by mitosis, become primordial follicles, and then become primary follicles that begin the first meiotic division. |
|
|
What happens after puberty? |
a few oocytes are activated each month, but only one will continue meiosis I, ultimately producing two haploid cells, a polar body, and a secondary oocyte |
|
|
When does secondary oocyte stop? |
meta-phase 2 |
|
|
What happens if sperm penetrates the secondary oocyte in meta-phase 2? |
it will complete meiosis II, producing a second polar body and a large ovum |
|
|
What is the ovarian cycle? |
the monthly series of events associated with the maturation of the egg |
|
|
What is the follicular phase? |
the period of follicle growth typically lasting from days 1 to 14 |
|
|
When does ovulation occur? |
when the ovary wall ruptures and the secondary oocyte is expelled. |
|
|
What is the luteal phase? |
the period of corpus luteum activity, days 14–28 |
|
|
What occurs during childhood |
- the ovaries grow and secrete small amounts of estrogen that inhibit the release of GnRH until puberty - when the hypothalamus becomes less sensitive to estrogen and begins to release GnRH in a rhythmic manner |
|
|
What happens on day 1 of the cycle? |
levels of GnRH rise and stimulate increased production and release of FSH and LH |
|
|
What do FSH & LH stimulate? |
follicle growth and maturation, and estrogen secretion
|
|
|
What do Rising levels of estrogen in the plasma exert? |
negative feedback on the anterior pituitary, inhibiting release of FSH and LH |
|
|
What does estrogen exert? |
positive feedback on the anterior pituitary, resulting in a burst of LH triggering ovulation and transforming the ruptured follicle into the corpus luteum |
|
|
What exert negative feedback on LH and FSH release? |
Rising plasma levels of progesterone and estrogen
|
|
|
What happens after LH levels fall and luteal activity |
- the corpus luteum degenerates - dropping the levels of estrogen and progesterone, and the cycle starts again |
|
|
What is the uterine (menstrual) cycle? |
a series of cyclic changes that the uterine endometrium goes through each month in response to changing levels of ovarian hormones in the blood |
|
|
When does the menstrual phase take place? |
days 1–5 typically, and is the time when the endometrium is shed from the uterus.
|
|
|
What is The proliferation phase (days 6–14)? |
is the time in which the endometrium is rebuilt, once again becoming velvety, thick, and well vascularized. |
|
|
What is The secretory phase (days 15–28)? |
the phase in which the endometrium prepares for implantation of an embryo. E |
|
|
What do rising estrogen levels promote? |
oogenesis and follicle growth in the ovary, as well as growth and function of the female reproductive structures |
|
|
What do estrogen also cause? |
the epiphyses of the long bones to close during growth spurts in puberty |
|
|
What does the estrogen-induced secondary sex characteristics of females include? |
growth of breasts, increased deposition of subcutaneous fat in the hips and breasts, widening and lightening of the pelvis, growth of pubic and axillary hair, and metabolic changes |
|
|
Progesterone works with estrogen to establish & help regulate what? |
the uterine cycle, and promotes changes in cervical mucus |
|
|
What happens in the female sexual response? |
- the clitoris, vaginal mucosa, and breasts become engorged with blood - the nipples erect; vestibular glands increase in activity; and the final phase is orgasm |
|
|
What is sex determined by? |
- the sex chromosomes at conception - females have two X chromosomes - males have an X and a Y chromosome |
