233 Exam 2

Front 1

Salivary amylase stops digestion of carbohydrates in the:

Back 1

Stomach

Front 2

Carbohydrates are converted to ______________ and ___________________ in the stomach

Back 2

disaccharides and trisaccharides

Front 3

Through facilitated diffusion carbohydrates are digested and released as _______________ into the blood stream

Back 3

monosaccharides

Front 4

Lipids start a small amount of digestion in the oral cavity through

Back 4

lingual lipase

Front 5

Brush border enzymes act upon what four things

Back 5

oligosaccharides, maltose, sucrose, lactose, and fructose

Front 6

Sodium glucose transport proteins (SGLT) in membrane helps absorb ____________ and __________

Back 6

glucose and galactose

Front 7

Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion and then converted to __________ inside the cell

Back 7

glucose

Front 8

more nitrogen coming in than coming out is a:

Back 8

Positive nitrogen balance, proteins building up in the body like in pregnancy or muscle building

Front 9

less nitrogen coming in than coming out is a:

Back 9

Negative nitrogen balance, proteins being broken down in the body

Front 10

Glucose comes into the cell and is converted into

Back 10

glucose 6 phosphate

Front 11

Glucose is converted into glucose 6 phosphate because

Back 11

once it is phosphorylated it cannot leave the membrane and keeps a positive gradient for only glucose to come in

Front 12

NADH is what vitamin

Back 12

Niacin

Front 13

FAD is what vitamin

Back 13

Riboflavin

Front 14

Carbohydrates are found in what 3 places in the body?

Back 14

Muscles, liver glycogen, blood glucose

Front 15

genesis means

Back 15

to make something

Front 16

glycogenesis

Back 16

the synthesis of glycogen

Front 17

blood glucose is carefully regulated by ____________ and ____________

Back 17

insulin and glucagon

Front 18

water soluble fiber (pectin) reduces what two things?

Back 18

Blood cholesterol and LDL levels

Front 19

Water insoluble fiber (cellulose, lignin)

Back 19

Absorbs water in intestines, softens stool, gives it bulk and speeds transit time

Front 20

LDL

Back 20

deposits fats, absorbed by cells for membrane repair or steroid synthesis

Front 21

HDL

Back 21

Travels through blood and picks up cholesterol, delivers cholesterol to liver for elimination in bile

Front 22

High levels of HDL indicate what?

Back 22

That cholesterol is being removed from the arteries

Front 23

High levels of LDL cholesterol correlates with

Back 23

cholesterol deposition in the arteries

Front 24

Cori cycle

Back 24

Lactate goes to liver- liver goes to gluconeogenesis turning lactate back to glucose glucose is released into blood stream and now muscles can use it for energy.

Front 25

Acetyl CoA is what enters into what?

Back 25

Krebs, citric acid cycle

Front 26

The majority of our ATP comes from the:

Back 26

ETC

Front 27

Glycogenolysis

Back 27

Glycogen going to glucose

Front 28

Gluconeogenesis

Back 28

synthesis of glucose from non carb precursors (mostly fats and amino acids)

Front 29

glucose 6 phosphate after:

Back 29

we can then store things as glycogen

Front 30

Triglycerides are stored in _____________

Back 30

adipocytes

Front 31

glycerol enters in the chain at

Back 31

PGAL

Front 32

Calcium and phosphorous function

Back 32

Bones and teeth

Front 33

Calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese all serve as:

Back 33

cofactors for enzymes

Front 34

Iron is essential for _________ and ___________

Back 34

hemoglobin and myoglobin

Front 35

Fat soluble vitamins

Back 35

A, D, E, K

Front 36

Water soluble vitamins example:

Back 36

B, C

Front 37

What are the three major pathways for glucose catabolism?

Back 37

glycolysis, aerobic respiration, anaerobic fermentation

Front 38

glycogenesis is stimulated by

Back 38

Insulin

Front 39

glycogenolysis is stimulated by _____________ and ______________

Back 39

glucagon and epinephrine

Front 40

Only ______ cells can release glucose back into blood

Back 40

liver

Front 41

Lipolysis

Back 41

Breaking down of fat for fuel

Front 42

Lipogenesis

Back 42

Synthesizing fat from other sources; amino acids and sugars used to make fatty acids and glycerol

Front 43

The bi product of anaerobic fermentation is:

Back 43

Lactic acid

Front 44

From pyruvic acid we can either go into

Back 44

aerobic respiration or anaerobic fermentation

Front 45

Astrocytes convert glucose to

Back 45

Lactate

Front 46

Ketogenic diet

Back 46

High fat- brain feeding

Front 47

Lactic acid travels to the _______ to be oxidized back into pyruvic when O2 is available

Back 47

Liver

Front 48

Glycolysis cannot continue without a supply of _______

Back 48

NAD+

Front 49

_________ reduced pyruvic acid to lactic acid restoring NAD+

Back 49

NADH

Front 50

Liver has a glucose 6 phosphatase which can convert:

Back 50

Which can convert glycogen back to glucose and allow it to go back into the blood stream

Front 51

When we do not need glucose we store it as:

Back 51

Glycogen

Front 52

Glycerol is converted to PGAL and enters:

Back 52

Glycolysis

Front 53

From intermediate _______ the glycerol and acetyl CoA will get converted to fatty acids and we will store the lipids

Back 53

PGAL

Front 54

GLycerol can enter in chain at _______ but the fatty acids can enter in at ____________

Back 54

PGAL, Acetyl CoA

Front 55

Glycerol is used to make _______ while fatty acids can be used directly to make _______

Back 55

glucose; ATP

Front 56

Fatty acids go in at _________ and then undergo ketogenesis

Back 56

Acetyl CoA

Front 57

We can get more ATP from _________ molecules than from glucose.

Back 57

Fatty acid

Front 58

When fatty acids undergo ketogenesis they can:

Back 58

be metabolized by the liver to form ketone bodies

Front 59

Rapid or incomplete oxidation of fats can cause a rise in blood ________ levels and an imbalance in pH (ketoacidosis)

Back 59

ketone (ketosis)

Front 60

Proteins can enter into the chain at:

Back 60

citric acid cycle, acetyl CoA, or pyruvic acid

Front 61

a biproduct of protein which is monitored in the urine

Back 61

Ammonia

Front 62

Lipogenesis: if we get to acetyl CoA and we do not need anymore ATP so:

Back 62

we can store the lipids

Front 63

The absorptive state after a meal:

Back 63

4 hours after a meal

Front 64

Absorptive state is regulated by:

Back 64

Insulin

Front 65

When insulin levels rise

Back 65

glucose deposits back into the blood stream

Front 66

Blood glucose in excess is converted into _________ or __________

Back 66

glycogen ; fat

Front 67

Insulin causes _____________ and energy to be stored

Back 67

lipogenesis

Front 68

Hormones elevated during absorptive phase

Back 68

gastrin, CCK, secretin

Front 69

Insulin will cause uptake of _________

Back 69

glucose

Front 70

Insulin inhibits _______________

Back 70

gluconeogenesis

Front 71

Post absorptive state

Back 71

after the four hours blood sugar begins to come back down

Front 72

Post absorptive state is regulated by what hormones:

Back 72

glucagon and epinephrine, sympathetic nervous system

Front 73

Cortisol gets released from the adrenal cortex

Back 73

increase blood glucose when necessary as well

Front 74

What hormone releases that makes you feel satiated?

Back 74

Ghrelin

Front 75

Ghrelin is released by the

Back 75

Stomach

Front 76

Insulin is released from the

Back 76

Pancreas

Front 77

What is the name of the enzyme secreted by the pancreas that activates other enzymes for protein digestion?

Back 77

Trypsinogen

Front 78

What is the name of the shell that carries fats across the epithelium of the small intestines into the cells?

Back 78

Micelle

Front 79

From the cells of the small intestines into the blood stream fats are released as:

Back 79

Chylomicrons

Front 80

Which hormone causes an increase in calcium absorption in the GI tract?

Back 80

Calcitriol

Front 81

PTH converts

Back 81

Calcitriol

Front 82

Which vitamin does the bacteria of the large intestines help synthesize?

Back 82

B and K

Front 83

The greater the concentration gradient the _____ diffusion you will get, the less the concentration gradient the ______ diffusion you will get

Back 83

More; less

Front 84

lood filtration occurs:

Back 84

every 4-6 hours

Front 85

Kidney filters and regulates:

Back 85

Blood plasma, wastes, regulate osmolarity, BP, acid base balance

Front 86

We have to maintain a narrow range of BP in order to get the __________ to occur

Back 86

filtration

Front 87

Kidney secretes hormones __________ and ____________.

Back 87

renin and erythropoetin

Front 88

Respiratory system gets rid of what metabolic waste:

Back 88

CO2

Front 89

Kidney arteries

Back 89

aorta

abdominal aorta

renal a.

segmental a.

interlobar a.

arcuate a

cordical radiate a.

afferent arteriole

Front 90

Kidney veins

Back 90

Glomerulus

efferent arteriole

peritubular capillaries

cordical radiant vein

arcuate

interlobar

renal vein

inferior vena cava

Front 91

Short nephron-

long nephrom

Back 91

cortical, juxtamedullary

Front 92

If it stays in the cortex of the kidney it will be a peritubular capillary where as if it will be down in the medulla it will be the ________ _______.

Back 92

Vasa recta

Front 93

The capillaries and the capsule of the glomerulus are called the:

Back 93

renal corpuscle

Front 94

Kidneys convert blood plasma to urine in what three stages?

Back 94

1 Glomerular filtration

2 Tubular reabsorption and secretion

3 Water conservation

Front 95

The fluid in the capsular space is called the

Back 95

Glomerular filtrate

Front 96

Fluid from the PCT to the DCT is called the

Back 96

Tubular fluid

Front 97

85% of our nephrons are _________ nephrons which mostly function to filter the blood

Back 97

cortical

Front 98

15% of our nephrons are going to be ____________ nephrons which are for water conservation

Back 98

juxtamedullary

Front 99

We only pull back the stuff in the urine we really need from the ________.

Back 99

PCT - glucose, electrolytes

Front 100

Receptors to what we need to pull back are located on the _______.

Back 100

DCT

Front 101

_____________ create filtration slits that are used to filter the blood.

Back 101

Podocytes

Front 102

The filtration membrane is comprised of what three things?

Back 102

Capillary epithelium, basement membrane, podocytes

Front 103

Strep bacteria has an affinity for the basement membrane. Strep that is not treated effectively can cause _________ ____________.

Back 103

glomerular nephritis

Front 104

Blood ___________ ____________ is what is driving the filtration at the glomerulus

Back 104

hydrostatic pressure (bp)

Front 105

We have an abundance of proteins left inside want to pull fluid back in which is referred to as

Back 105

colloid osmotic pressure

Front 106

The capsule is always full so as the bp is trying to push water out into space there is pressure created by water already there that opposes the blood pressure pushing the water out, this is called:

Back 106

Capsular pressure.

Front 107

GFR is governed by

Back 107

Capsular pressure, colloid osmotic pressure, hydrostatic pressure

Front 108

an increase in GFR

Back 108

increase urine output which could lead to electrolyte imbalances and dehydration

Front 109

GFR to low than:

Back 109

you have time to reabsorb garbage - asotemia or blood toxicity

Front 110

Juxtaglomerular apparatus involves two things that give us autoregulation

Back 110

juxtaglomerular cells wrapped around arteriole, and DCT cells that are columnar cells called the macula densa

Front 111

GFR is controlled by adjusting glomerular blood pressure through what:

Back 111

Autoregulation

sympathetic control

Hormonal mechanisms: renin and angiotensin

Front 112

________________ cells if cells get stretched to much, to much fluid causes it to constrict, to much fluid will cause the to dilate to let fluid into the glomerulus.

Back 112

Juxtaglomerular

Front 113

If things are moving at to high a rate and to much Na is getting through and we cant absorb it all it will get detected by the ______ ______ cells who send a signal to the __________ cells to constrict.

Back 113

Macula densa, juxtaglomerular

Front 114

If there is not enough Na we can send signals and tell the juxtaglomerular cells to relax so we can increase glomerular filtration rate. if salinity is to low we can send signals for the release of ______.

Back 114

Renin

Front 115

During an increase in BP the juxtaglomerular cells will constrict and send a signal to dilate the __________ arteriole. If BP to low they will relax and dilate the ________ arteriole and constrict the ___________ arteriole.

Back 115

efferent; afferent; efferent

Front 116

Myogenic mechanism

Back 116

afferent arteriole either const or relax

Front 117

tubuloglomerular feedback

Back 117

what is occurring when macula densa is detecting the Na levels.

Front 118

High GFR

Back 118

Rapid flow

lack of Na sensed by macula densa

macula densa sends paracrine secretion to notify to afferent arteriole to const reduces glomerular filtration rate in order to absorb what it needs.

Front 119

Sympathetic control during running from the bear can also send signals to:

Back 119

aff arteriole to decrease GFR (const) and urine output to keep fluid to increase BP

Front 120

When there is a drop in BP in the kidneys the kidneys secrete

Back 120

Renin

Front 121

Renin converts angiotensinogen to:

Back 121

angiotensin I

Front 122

What is the enzyme located in the walls of the capillaries in lungs that converts angiotensin I into angiotensin II?

Back 122

ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme)

Front 123

Angiotensin II does what three things to increase water in the body:

Back 123

stimulates everything we got to increase water in our body by stimulating thirst causes vessels to vasoconstrict to elevate BP, goes to the kidneys activating zona glomerulus in adrenal cortex to release aldosterone which tells the kidneys to absorb Na

Front 124

ACE inhibitors

Back 124

prevent the conversion of angiotensin I into angiotensin II

Front 125

When there is a decrease in BP for any reason it causes a release of:

Back 125

renin

Front 126

Renin will constrict the:

Back 126

efferent arteriole which will buildup vol in glomerulus and reabsorption of Na

Front 127

____________ from the zona glomerulus is going to work on the DCT in order to cause us to absorb more Na out of the filtrate

Back 127

Aldosterone

Front 128

Posterior pituitary releases ______ to cause more water reabsorption on the collecting duct.

Back 128

ADH

Front 129

BP drops and ______ gets released. liver is always producing ______________. renin converts angiotensinogen into ____________, angiotensin I passes through lungs and converted to angiotensin II by _____ causing wide spread vasoconstrict, get aldosterone secretion, increase thirst, and GFR.

Back 129

Renin; angiotensinogen; angiotensin I; ACE

Front 130

What part of the kidney makes renin?

Back 130

Juxtaglomerular cells

Front 131

Where are the juxtaglomerular cells located?

Back 131

on the afferent arteriole

Front 132

From the capsule the filtrate is going to go to the PCT there is a lot of active transport and we are going to reabsorb most everything that is valuable

Back 132

on the afferent arteriole

Front 133

The thin descned loop is permeable to ________only

Back 133

water

Front 134

This ascend is not permeable to water and permeable to __________.

Back 134

electrolytes

Front 135

two different types of cells in the DCT

Back 135

Principle cells, intercalated cells

Front 136

Principle cells

Back 136

Have the receptors for hormones

Front 137

intercalated cells

Back 137

governed by the concentration of H ions, have to do with acid/base balance K absorption

Front 138

Atrial natriuretic peptide

Back 138

Only one we have to lower BP

To lower BP it is going to dilate aff art and const eff art so we will increase GF to get rid of more water but are now at risk for losing electrolytes. inhibits angiotensin aldost, and ADH, inhibits Na and Cl reabsorption so more Na will stay and H2o will stay and get rid of fluid vol to lower bp

Front 139

PTH

Back 139

released when blood calc levels are low causing ca reabsorption in DCT, increase phosphate excretion in order to Ca binds with phosphate and becomes hydroxyappetite crystals of inorganic matrix which gets laid down to mineralize bone so if we get rid of phosphate, Ca has nothing to bind to so we get rid of it in the blood stream

Front 140

In protein digestion carboxypeptidase removes one ______ ______ at a time from the carboxyl end of the oligopeptide

Back 140

amino acid

Front 141

Carbohydrate digestion starts in the mouth with:

Back 141

Salivary amylase

Front 142

In protein digestion pancreatic enzymes take over protein digestion by hydrolyzing _____________ into shorter _______________

Back 142

polypeptides; oligopeptides

Front 143

How do infants absorb proteins?

Back 143

Pinocytosis

Front 144

In protein digestion brush border enzymes finish the task by producing amino acids that are absorbed into __________ ____________ cells.

Back 144

Intestinal epithelial

Front 145

In fat digestion intestinal cells absorb lipids from ______________, resynthesize triglycerides and package triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids into_______________.

Back 145

Micelles; Chylomicrons

Front 146

Chylomicrons are released into the lymphatic system in the __________ of the villi. They enter the blood stream when lymphatic fluid enters the subclavian vein via the _________ duct.

Back 146

Lacteals ; thoracic

Front 147

Nucleases hydrolyze DNA and RNA to _____________.

Back 147

nucleotides

Front 148

Where are minerals absorbed in the digestive tract?

Back 148

all along the small intestine

Front 149

What is secreted in response to a drop in blood Ca levels?

Back 149

PTH

Front 150

Vitamin D effects the absorptive cells in the duodenum in what 3 ways?

Back 150

increases number of calcium channels in apical membrane

increases the amount of calbindin in the cytoplasm

Increases the number of calcium ATPase pumps at basal membrane

Front 151

Diarrhea occurs when too ______ water is absorbed

Back 151

little

Front 152

Anal columns are longitudinal ridges separated by mucus secretes ______ _________.

Back 152

anal sinuses

Front 153

The three steps of neural control of the rectum

Back 153

1. filling of the rectum

2. reflex contraction of the rectum and relaxation of the internal anal sphincter

3. voluntary relaxation of external sphincter

Front 154

reabsorption of potassium

Back 154

defuses into the lumen through channels on the apical surface and then we exchange it for Na

Front 155

Hypotonic

Back 155

water remains in urine

Front 156

hypertonic

Back 156

produced in presence of ADH, it puts aquaporins into the collecting duct, the more aquporins the water can be reabsorbed and the more concentrated the water is

Front 157

counter current multiplier

Back 157

allows us to concentrate are urine 1700 and 1400 milli osmules, dependent on presence of ADH

Front 158

Descending loop

Back 158

reabsorbs water but not salt and concentrates the water

Front 159

Ascending loop

Back 159

reabsorbs the Na and K but is impermeable to water

Front 160

At birth the channels for this sodium begin working. babies do not have the ability to concentrate urine making them susceptible to ____________.

Back 160

dehydration

Front 161

constant flow of filtrate establishes gradient of medulla of the kidney

Back 161

constantly producing urine keeps it moving

Front 162

The countercurrent exchange system is in the

Back 162

vasa recta

Front 163

200 MoSm difference is whats occurring naturally,Cortex is at 300Mosm and Medulla at 1200 Mosm

Back 163

Your constantly producing urine so the pressure of fluid keeps the gradient moving

Front 164

The vasa recta are permeable to _______ and _______

Back 164

solutes(NaCl) and water

Front 165

The hypothalamus continues to release _____

Back 165

ADH

Front 166

DCT and collecting system are always permeable to _______

Back 166

Water

Front 167

Diuretics reduce ______ ________ and are used for conditions of ___________ and congestive heart failure

Back 167

Blood volume ; Hypertension

Front 168

If we were really over-hydrated we could concentrate and get rid of large volumes of ________ urine. If we are dehydrated we will put __________ in the collecting duct we can start to absorb more.

Back 168

diluted ; aquaporins

Front 169

Diabetes mellitus we cannot concentrate our urine due to losing the gradient therefore a symptoms is _________ urination. Losing water due to having glucose, more water is kept inside.

Back 169

increased

Front 170

Diabetes insipidus we have an ___________ urination because it cannot be regulated by ADH

Back 170

Increase

Front 171

Diuretics __________ urine output and _________ blood volume

Back 171

Increase urine output and decrease blood volume

Front 172

What gives urine its yellow color?

Back 172

Urochrome from the breakdown of hemoglobin

Front 173

Urine itself is sterile but as its leaving it picks up bacteria which degrades urea and becomes ___________ which gives it its smell.

Back 173

ammonia

Front 174

Polyuria

Back 174

to much urine

Front 175

Oliguria

Back 175

Scanty,500ml/day

Front 176

Anuria

Back 176

AN= w/o, no urine

Front 177

Gestational diabetes

Back 177

Baby secreting hormone that is pulling form mom

Front 178

The detrusor muscle has ___________ peritoneum

Back 178

parietal

Front 179

Trigone

Back 179

filters blood into urethra

Front 180

Involuntary urethral sphincter

Back 180

internal urethral sphincter

Front 181

Micturition reflex uses the ___________ nervous system

Back 181

parasympathetic

Front 182

In the secretion and neutralization of H ions in the kidney, the focus is on getting rid of ________ and absorbing _______. The PCT is focused on the amount of bicarb while the DCT is focused on the amounts of H

Back 182

H ; Bicarb

Front 183

Carbonic anhydrase equation can go:

Back 183

either direction

Front 184

We are always absorbing potassium in exchange for ________.

Back 184

sodium