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150 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
________ fits function in the animal body
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structure
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Anatomy
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is the study of an organism's structure
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Physiology
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is the study of the functions of an organism's structure
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The hierarchy of animal structure
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1) cellular level
2) Tissue level 3) Organ level 4) Organ system level 5) Organism level |
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Tissue
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is an integrated group of similar cells that preform a specific function
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Organ
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is made up of two or more types of tissue that together preform a specific task
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Organ system
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consists of multiple organs that together preform a vital body function
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Organism
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contains a number of organ systems
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_________ are groups of cells with a common structure and function
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Tissues
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Epithelial tissue / epithelium
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occurs as sheets of tightly packed cells that cover body surfaces and line internal organs and cavities
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Basement membrane
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a dense mat of extracellular matrix consisting of fibrous proteins and sticky polysaccharides.
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Types of Epithelial tissue
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1) simple squamous
2) simple cuboidal 3) simple columnar 4) stratified squamous 5) stratified squamous |
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Mucous Membrane
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secretes a slimy solution called mucous that lubricates the surface and keeps it moist.
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______tissue binds and supports other tissues
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Connective
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Connective tissue
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consists of a sparse population of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix
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Loose connective tissue
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its matrix is a loose weave of fibers
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Fibrous connective tissue
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has a matrix of densely packed parallel bundles of collagen fibers , an arrangement that maximizes its nonelastic strengths.
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Adipose tissue
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stores fat in large,closely packed adipose cells held in a sparse matrix of fibers
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Cartilage
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the matrix of connective tissue that forms a strong but flexible skeletal material, consists of an abundance of collagen fivers embedded in a rubbery substance.
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Bone
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a rigid connective tissue has a matrix of collagen fibers embedded in calcium salts.
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Blood
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functions differently from other connective tissue. is a liquid called plasma that consists of water, salt and dissolved proteins
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Muscle tissue functions is _______
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movement
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Muscle tissue
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consists of bundles of long cells called muscle fibers and s the most abundant tissue in most animals
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Skeletal muscle
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is attached to bones by tendons and is responsible for voluntary movements of the body
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Cardiac muscle
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forms the contractile tissue of the heart
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Smooth muscle
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is smooth, is found in the walls of the digestive tract, urinary bladder, arteries, and other internal organs.
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Nervous tissue forms a _________network
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communication
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nervous tissue
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senses stimuli and rapidly transmits information from one part of an animal to another.
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Neuron
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or nerve cell, which is uniquely specialized to conduct electrical nerve impulses
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Artificial tissues have _______
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medical uses
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_____ are made up of tissues
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Organs
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The order of the tissues in an organ
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1) epithelial
2) Connective 3) smooth muscle 4) connective tissue 5) epithelial |
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________ systems work together to preform life functions.
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Organ
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Digestive system
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ingests and breaks down food into smaller chemical units to be used as fuel for cellular respiration: eliminates undigested material
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Circulatory System
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delivers nutrients and O2 to the body cells: carries co2 to the lungs and metabolic wastes to the excretory organs, the kidneys.
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Immune system
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defends the body against infections and cancer
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Lymphatic system
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returns fluid that leaks from blood vessels to the circulatory system: functions as part of the immune system
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Excretory system
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removes nitrogen-containing waste products form the blood regulates the chemical make up[ and water balance in the blood
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Endocrine system
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secretes chemicals, called hormones, that regulate body activities such as digestion, metabolism, growth, reproduction, heart rate, and water balance
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Nervous system
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coordinates body activities by detecting stimuli, integrating information,m and directing the body's responses
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Integumentary system
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protects against mechanical injury, infection, excessive hear or cold, and drying out.
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Skeletal system
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supports the body: protects certain internal organs such as the brain and lungs; provides the framework for muscles to produce movement
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Muscular system
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skeletal muscles produce movement, maintain posture, and produce heat
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Reproductive systems
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produce gametes and sex hormones: Female system provides organs to support and developing embryo and glands for producing milk
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Structural _______ enhance exchange between animals and their environment
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adaptations
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Homeostasis
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"a steady state" The animals way of regulating their internal environment, and depends on negative feed back
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Negative feed back
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in which a change in a variable triggers mechanisms that reverse the change
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who loves you
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Jim
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your husband
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Different ways of ingesting food for animals
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1) Herbivores
2) Carnivores 3) Omnivores |
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Herbivores
(herba, green crop) (vorus, devouring) |
eat mainly plants and algae
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animals that eat plants and algae are cattle, gorillas, snails, and sea urchins
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Carnivores (carne, flesh)
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eat other animals/ flesh
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animals that eat flesh lions, hawks, spiders, and snakes
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Omnivores ( omnis, all)
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eats both flesh and plants
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animals that eat both, crows, cockroaches, raccoons, and human
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Suspension feeders
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extract food particles suspended in the surrounding water
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Substrate feeders
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live in or on their food source and eat their way through it
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Fluid feeders
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obtain food by sucking nutrient-rich fluids from a living host, either a plant or an animal
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bulk feeders
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they ingest relatively large pieces of food
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Food processing in 4 stages
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1) ingestion
2) digestion 3) absorption 4) elimination |
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Digestion occurs in _______ compartments
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specialized
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Gastrovascular cavity
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a digestive compartment with a single opening the mouth
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cnidarians and flatworms have a gastrovascular cavity
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alimentary canal
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a digestive tube with two openings, a mouth and an anus
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Pharynx
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throat
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esophagus
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channel food to a crop, gizzard or stomach
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Crop
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a pouch like organ in which food is softened and stored
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stomachs & gizzards
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store food temporarily, but they are more muscular and they churn and grind the food
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Intestine
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chemical digestion and nutrient absorption occur here
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Anus
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undigested materials are expelled through this
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The human digestive system consists of an _______&_______
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alimentary canal and accessory glands
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Once food is swallowed muscles propel it through the alimentary canal by_____, rhythmic waves of contraction of smooth muscles in the walls of the digestive tract.
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peristalsis
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Digestion begins in the _______
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oral cavity
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Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the ______
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oral cavity
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The food and breathing passages both open into the ____-
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pharynx / throat
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The esophagus squeezes food along to the ______ by peristalsis
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stomach
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The stomach stores food and breaks it sown with _____ and _____
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acid and enzymes
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Gastric juice
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the stomach secretes this which is made up of mucus, enzymes, and strong acids.
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Bacterial infections can cause _______
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ulcers
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The ________ intestine is the major organ of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
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Small
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Pancreas
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produces juice, a mixture of digestible enzymes and an alkaline solution rich in baicarbonate.
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Liver
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preforms a wide variety of functions, including the production of bile
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Bile
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contains bile salt that emulsify fats, making them more susceptible to attack by digestive enzymes
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Gallbladder
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store bile until it is needed in the small intestine
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duodenum
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is were the acid chyme squirted from the stomach mixes with bile from the gallbladder, pancreatic juices from the pancreas, and digestive enzymes from gland cells in the intestinal wall itself.
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The large intestine reclaims water and ________
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compacts the feces
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Large intestine or colon
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main function is to absorb water from the alimentary canal
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Adaptations of vertebrate ___________ reflect diet
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digestive systems
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Ruminant mammals
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such as cattle, sheep and deer have a more elaborate system for cellulose digestion.
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Vitamin
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is an organic nutrient that we must obtain form our diet,
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Minerals
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are simple inorganic nutrients, usually required in small amounts
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Animal feeding mechanisms
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include suspension, substrate, fluid, and bulk feeding
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animals may be what kind of eaters
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herbivores, carnivores, or omnivores
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4 stages of food processing
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ingestion, digestion , absorption and elimination
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Digestive compartments may be
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food vacuoles (sponges), a gastrovascular cavity ( cnidarians and flatworms) in most animals, a alimentary canal running form mouth to anus with specialized regions
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The human digestive system consists of
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an alimentary canal and accessory glands. The rhythmic muscle contractions of peristalsis squeeze food along the alimentary canal. The pyloric sphincter regulates passage of ofd from the stomach to the small intestine
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Oral cavity
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the teeth break up food, saliva moistens it, and salivary enzymes begin the hydrolysis of starch. The tongue pushes the bolus of food into the pharynx
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Pharynx and esophagus
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the swallowing reflex moves food from the pharynx into the esophagus, while keeping it out of the trachea.
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The stomach
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stores food and mixes it with acidic gastric juice. Pepsin in gastric juice begins the hydrolysis of protein.
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The large intestine
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or colon, reabsorbs water form undigested material. feces are stored in the rectum
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Three phases of gas exchange in an animal with lungs
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1) breathing
2) is the transport of gases by the circulatory system 3) body cells take up O2 from the blood and releases CO2 to the blood |
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Respiratory surface
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are made up of living cells, whose plasma membranes must be wet to function properly.
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Gills
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are extension, or out foldings, of the body surface specialized for gas exchange.
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Tracheal system
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of insects is an extensive system of branching internal tubes
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lungs
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are internal sacs lined with moist epithelium,
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Gills are adapted for gas exchange in ________ environments
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aquatic
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Ventilation
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any mechanism that increases the flow of the surrounding water or air over the respiratory surface.
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gills, tracheae or lungs
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Countercurrent exchange
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is the transfer of something from a fluid moving in one direction to another fluid moving in the opposite direction .
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The tracheal system of insects provides direct exchange between the ______ and ______
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air and body cells
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Terrestrial vertebrates have
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lungs
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our lungs are in the chest cavity , which is bonded at the bottom by a sheet of muscle called a ________
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Diaphragm
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Our breathing control centers are found in the _______
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pons and medulla oblongata
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Blood transports respiratory_______
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gases
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Hemoglobin carries o2 and helps transport CO2 and buffers the _____
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blood
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The human fetus exchanges gases withe the mother's ______
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bloodstream
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Gas exchange
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the interchange of O2 and CO2 between an organism and its environment, provides O2 for cellular respiration and removes its waste product, CO2 gas exchange often involves breathing, transport of gases, and exchange of gases with body cells
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Respiratory surfaces
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must be thin and moist for diffusion of O2 and CO2 to occur. In most animals, specialized body parts such as gills, tracheal systems, or lungs provide large respiratory surfaces for gas exchange.
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Gills
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are extensions of the body that absorb O2 dissolved in water. In a fish, gas exchange is enhanced by ventilation and the countercurrent flow of water and blood.
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Tracheal systems
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in insects transport O2 directly to body cells through a network of finely branched tubes
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Lungs
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most terrestrial vertebrates have lungs. In mammals, air inhaled through the nostrials passes through the pharynx and larynx into the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles to the alveoli, where gas exchange occurs. Mucus and cilia in the respiratory passes protect the lungs, but smoking can destroy these protections. Smoking causes lung cancer, hart disease, and emphysema
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Breathing
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is the alternation of inhalation and exhalation
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Breathing control centers
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in the brain keep breathing in tune with body needs, sensing and responding and the CO2 level in the blood. A drop in blood Ph triggers an increase in the rate and depth of breathing
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Circulation
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The heart pumps oxygen poor blood to the lungs, where it picks up O2 and drops off CO2. Then the heart pumps the oxygen rich blood to the body cells, where it crops off O2 and picks up CO2. Gases diffuse down partial pressure gradients in lungs and body tissues
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Hemoglobin
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in red blood cells transports oxygen, helps buffer the blood, and carries some CO2. Most CO2 is transported as bicarbonate ions in the plasma. A human fetus exchange gases with maternal blood in the placenta. Fetal hemoglobin enhances oxygen transfer from maternal blood. At birth rising CO2 in fetal blood stimulates the breathing control centers to initiate breathing.
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The circulatory system connects with all body ______
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tissues
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Double circulation
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blood is pumped in second time after it slows down in the capillary beds of the lungs
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Pulmonary circuit
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carries blood between the heart and the gas exchange tissues in the lungs.
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Systemic circuit
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carries blood between the heart and the rest of the body
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Open circulatory system
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Blood is pumped through open ended vessels and flows out among the cells there is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid
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Closes circulatory system
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the blood is confined to the vessels which keep it distinct form the interstitial fluid
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A Circulatory system
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transports O2 and nutrients to cells and takes away CO2 and other wastes. Capillaries, the sites of exchange between blood and interstitial fluid, from intricate networks among tissue cells
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Types of internal transport
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Gastrovascular cavities function in both digestion and internal transport in cnidarians and flatworms. In the open circulatory systems of arthropods and many molluscs, a heart pumps blood through open ended vessels to bathe tissue cells directly. In closed circulatory systems, a heart pumps blood though arteries to capillaries,, veins return blood to the heart.
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Cardiovascular systems of vertebrates
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the two chambered heart of a fish pumps blood in a single circuit form gill capillaries to systemic capillaries and back to the heart. Land vertebrates have double circulation with separate pulmonary and systemic circuits. Amphibians and reptiles have three chambered hearts birds and mammals have four chambered hearts
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The mammalian heart
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has two thin walled atria that pump blood into the ventricles and tow thick walled ventricles that pump blood to all other body organs
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Cardiac cycle
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during diastole (relaxation) blood flows from the veins into the heart chambers during systole, contractions of the atria push blood into the ventricles and then stronger contractions of the ventricles propel blood into the large artieries. Cardiac output is the amount of blood/minute pumped into the systemic circuit. Heart valves prevent the back flow of blood.
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The Pacemaker (SA node)
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generates electrical signals that rigger contraction of the atria. The AV mode relays these signals to the ventricles. AN electrocardiogram records the electrical charges in the heart. Heart rate adjusts to body needs. A heart attack is damage to cardiac muscle usually resulting from a blocked coronary artery
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Blood pressure
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the force blood exerts on vessel walls, depends on cardiac output and the resistance of vessels. Pressure is highest in the arteries and lowest in the veins. blood velocity is slowest in the capillaries. Muscle contractions and one way valves keep blood moving through veins to the heart. Blood pressure is measured as systolic and diastolic pressures. Hypertension is a serous cardiovascular problem
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Capillary Exchange
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Constriction of arterioles and pre-capillary sphincters controls blood flow through capillary beds. The transfer of materials between blood and interstitial fluid occurs by diffusion and by pressure flow through clefts between epithelial cells. Blood pressure forces fluid out of the capillary at he arterial end, and osmotic pressure draws fluid in at the venous end.
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Blood
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consists of cells in a fluid plasma, which contains various inorganic ions, proteins, nutrients, wastes, gases, and hormones. Red blood cells ( erythrocytes) transport O2 bound to hemoglobin. WHite blood cells ( leukocytes) function both inside and outside the circulatory system to fight infections and cancer. The hormone erythropoietin regulates red blood cell production. Some athletes artificially increase their red blood cell number, a dangerous practice.
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Blood clotting
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when a blood vessel is damaged, platelets help trigger the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin, forming a clot that plugs the leak
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Stem Cells
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divided in bond marrow to produce all blood cells and may be used to treat some blood disorders.
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Innate defenses
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against infection include the skin, mucous membranes, phagocytic cells, and antimicrobial proteins. Tissue damage triggers the inflammatory response, which can disinfect tissues and limit further infection. THe lymphatic system is a network of vessels and organs. THe vessels collect fluid from body tissues and return it as lymph to the blood. Lymph organs, such as the spleen and lymph nodes, are packed with white blood cells that fight infections.
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The immune system
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counters specific invaders by responding to antigens. Infection or vaccination triggers active immunity, which allows the immune system to "remember" an invader. We can also temporarily acquire passive immunity. Tow kinds of lymphocytes carry out the immune response. Millions of kinds of B cells and T cells, each with different membrane receptors, wait in the lymphatic system, where they may respond to invaders. Antigen molecules have specific regions, called antigenic determinants, to which antibodies bind.
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Clonal selection
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When an antigen enters the body, it activates only a small subset of lymphocytes, those with complementary receptors. THe selected cells multiply into clones of short lived effector cells specialized for defending against the antigen that triggered the response and memory cells, which confer long term immunity. Activated by subsequent exposure to the antigen, memory cells amount a rapid and massive secondary immune response.
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Humoral immunity
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secreted by plasma ( effector) B cells, an antibody molecule has antigen binding sites specific to the antigenic determinants that elicited its secretion. Antibodies promote antigen elimination through several mechanism. Monoclonal antibodies are useful in research, diagnosis, and treatment of certain cancers
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Cell-mediated immunity
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Helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells are the main effectors of cell mediated immunity, and helper T cells also stimulate the humoral responses. In cell mediated immunity, and antigen presenting cell displays a foreign antigen ( a non self molecule) and one of he bodies own self proteins to a helper T Cell. The helper T Cells receptors recognize the self non self complexes and the interaction activates the helper T cells and B cells. The aids virus attacks helper T cells, opening the way for opportunistic infections. Cytotoxic T cells bind to infected body cells and destroy them. Cytotoxic T cells may also attack cancer cells, which have abnormal surface molecules. The immune system normally reacts only against non self substances, not against self. Transplanted organs may be rejected because these cells lack the unique "fingerprint' of the recipient's self proteins.
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When immunity malfunctions.
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in autoimmune diseases, the system turns against the body's own molecules. iN immunodeficiency diseases, immune components are lacking and frequent infections occur. Allergies are abnormal sensitivities to antigens ( allergens) in teh surroundings.
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Homoeostasis refers to.....
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the body's ability to maintain a relatively constant internal environment.
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Negative feedback
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the bodies ability to maintain consistency which counteracts change
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Positive feedback
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responds to enhance change ( example child birth)
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What are the 4 types of tissues
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1) epithelium
2) connective 3) muscle 4) nervous |
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The 4 types of tissue go on to form
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organs such as lung, heart or stomach
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organs go on to form _____
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organ system
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Epithelial tissue
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line the bodies cavities and create membranes which restricts substance moving from inside an organ to the outside as well as the reverse.
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