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302 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
accommodation
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process by which smaller society can preserve major features of its culture even after prolonged contact w/ larger culture
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acculturation
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process by which members of a civilization incorporate norms & values of other cultures
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achieved status
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position/rank earned through efforts of the individual
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age cohort
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set of ppl of @ same age passing through the life course together
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age grade
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set of statuses & roles based on age
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ageism
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ideology justifying prejudice & discrimination based on age
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agencies of socialization
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groups of ppl, along w/ interactions occurring w/in those groups, influencing a person's social development
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agents of socialization
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individuals who socialize others
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alienation
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feeling of powerlessness re: control of one's own destiny; a worker's feeling of powerlessness owing to inability to control work process
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animism
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form of religion: all forms of life & aspects of the earth are inhabited by gods/supernatural powers
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anomie
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state of normlessness
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anticipatory socialization
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prepares individual for a role he/she is likely to assume later in life
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ascribed status
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position/rank assigned to individual @ birth & cannot be changed
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assimilation
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pattern of intergroup relations: minority group is absorbed into majority pop.--> disappears as distinct group; process by which culturally distinct groups in larger civilization adopt norms, values, & language of host civilization & can gain equal statuses in its groups & institutions
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authority
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power considered legitimate by those who exercise it & those affected by it - governed by norms & statuses of organizations
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behaviorism
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thry: all behavior is learned &this learning occurs through conditioning
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bisexuality
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sexual orientation twd either sex
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bureaucracy
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formal organization characterized by clearly defined hierarchy w/ commitment to rules, efficiency, & impersonality
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capitalism
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system for organizing the production of goods & services - based on markets, provate property, & business firm/company
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caste
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social stratum into which ppl are born & in which they remain for life
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charisma
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special quality/"gift" motivating ppl to follow a particular leader
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charismatic authority
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authority coming to an individual through personal calling, often claimed t/b inspired by supernatural powers, legitimated by ppl's belief that the leader does indeed have God-given powers
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church
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religious organization w/ strong ties to the larger society
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citizenship
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status of membership in a nation-state
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civilization
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cultural complex formed by identical major cultural features of a number of societies
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civil religion
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collection of beliefs & rituals existing outside religious institutions
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civil society
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sphere of nongovernmental, nonbusiness social activity carried out by voluntary associations, congregations, etc.
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class
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social stratum defined primarily by economic criteria ie occupation, income, & wealth
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class consciousness
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group's shared subjective awareness of objective situation as a class
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closed question
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question requiring respondent to choose among a predetermined set of answers
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closed society
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society: social mobility does not exist
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closed stratification system
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stratification system: rigid boundaries b/w social strata
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collective behavior
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nonroutine behavior engaged in by large nos. of ppl responding to common stimulus
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communications media
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institutions specializing in communicating info, images, & values @ ourselves, our communitities, & our society
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community
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set of primary & secondary groups in which individual carries out imp. life functions
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conditioning
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shaping of behavior through reward & punishment
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confidentiality
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promise that info provided to researcher by respondent will not appear in any way that c/b traced to respondent
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conflict thry
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sociological perspective emphasizing role of conflict & power in society
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control group
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subjects not experiencing a change in independent variable
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controlled experiment
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researcher manipulates independent variable in order to observe & measure changes in dependent variable
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core state
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technologically advanced nation w/ dominant position in world economy
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correlation
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specific relationship b/w 2 variables
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counterculture
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subculture challenging accepted norms & values of larger society & est. alternative lifestyle
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crime
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act/omission of an act that is prohibited by law
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crowd
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large no. of ppl gathered together in close proximity to one another
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crude birthrate
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no. of births occurring during a year in a given pop, divided by midyear pop
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crude death rate
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no. of deaths occurring during a year in a given pop, divided by midyear pop
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cult
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new religion
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cultural evolution
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process by which successful cultural adaptations are passed down E 1 gen to next
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cultural lag
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time required for social institutions to adapt to a major technological change
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cultural relativity
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recognition that all cultures develop own ways of dealing w/ specific demands of their environs
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culture
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all modes of thought, behavior, & production handed down E 1 gen to next by communicative interaction rather than genetic trans.
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de facto segregation
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segregation created & maintained by unwritten norms
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de jure segregation
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segregation created by formal legal sanctions prohibiting certain groups E interacting w/ others/placing limits on such interactions
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deference
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respect & esteem shown to an individual
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demagogue
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leader who uses personal charisma & political symbols to manipulate public opinion
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demeanor
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ways in which individuals present themselves to others E body language, dress, speech, & manners
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democracy
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political system in which all citizens have right to participate in public decision making
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demographic transition
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set of major changes in birth & death rates occurring most completely in urban industrial nations in past 200 years
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democratic socialism
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economic philosophy based on belief that private property may exist at same time that large corps are owned by state & run for benefit of all citizens
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crude birthrate
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no. of births occurring during a year in a given pop, divided by midyear pop
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crude death rate
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no. of deaths occurring during a year in a given pop, divided by midyear pop
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cult
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new religion
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cultural evolution
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process by which successful cultural adaptations are passed down E 1 gen to next
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cultural lag
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time required for social institutions to adapt to a major technological change
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cultural relativity
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recognition that all cultures develop own ways of dealing w/ specific demands of their environs
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culture
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all modes of thought, behavior, & production handed down E 1 gen to next by communicative interaction rather than genetic trans.
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de facto segregation
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segregation created & maintained by unwritten norms
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de jure segregation
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segregation created by formal legal sactions prohibiting certain groups E interacting w/ others/placing limits on such interactions
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deference
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respect & esteem shown to an individual
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demagogue
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leader who uses personal charisma & political symbols to manipulate public opinion
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demeanor
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ways in which individuals present themselves to others E body language, dress, speech, & manners
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democracy
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political system in which all citizens have right to participate in public decision making
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demographic transition
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set of major changes in birth & death rates occurring most completely in urban industrial nations in past 200 years
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democratic socialism
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economic philosophy based on belief that private property may exist at same time that large corps are owned by state & run for benefit of all citizens
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denomination
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religious organization on good terms w/ institution E which it developed but must compete w/ other denominations for members
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dependent variable
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variable a hypothesis seeks to explain
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developing nation
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nation undergoing set of transformations to increase productivity of its ppl, their health, their literacy, & their ability to participate in politcal decision making
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deviance
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behavior violating norms of a particular society
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differential association
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thry explaining deviance as a learned behavior determined by extent of a person's association w/ individuals who engage in such behaviors
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differentiation
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processes whereby sets of social activities performed by one social institution are divided among different institutions
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discrimination
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behavior tx ppl unfairly on the basis of their group membership
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downward mobility
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mov't by individual/group to a lower social stratum
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dramaturgical approach
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approach to reasearch on interaction in groups based on recognition that much social interaction depends on desire to impress those who m/b watching
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dyad
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group consisting of 2 ppl
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education
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process by which society transmits knowledge, values, norms, & ideologies & in so doing prepares young ppl for adult roles & adults for new roles
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educational achievement
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how much student actually learns, measured by mastery of reading, writing, & mathematical skills
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educational attainment
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no. of years of school an individual has completed
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ego
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part of human personality: individual's conception of him/herselg in relation to others
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endogamy
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norm specifying that a person brought up in a partcular culture may marry w/in the cultural group
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endogenous force
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pressure for social change that builds w/in a society
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equality of opportunity
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equal opportunity to achieve desired levels of material well-being & prestige
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equality of result
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equality in actual outcomes of ppl's attempts to improve their material well-being & prestige
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ethnic group
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pop w/ sense of group identity based on shared ancestry & distinctive cultural patterns
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ethnic (or racial) nationalism
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belief that one's own ethnic group constitutes a distinct ppl whose culture is & s/b separate E that of larger society
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ethnic stratification
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ranking of ethnic groups in social hierarchy on basis of e. group's similarity to dominant group
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ethnocentrism
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tendency to judge other cultures as inferior to one's own
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ethnomethodology
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study of underlying rules of behavior that guide group interaction
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exogamy
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norm specifying that a person brought up in a paricular culture may marry outside the cultural group
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exogenous force
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pressure for social change exerted E outside a society
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experimental group
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subjects who are exposed to a change in the independent variable
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expulsion
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forcible removal of 1 pop E territory claimed by another pop
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extended family
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individual's nuclear family plus the nuclear familites of his/her blood relatives
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family
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group of ppl related by blood, marriage,/adoption
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family of orientation
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nuclear family in which a person is born & raised
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family of procreation
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nuclear family a person forms E marriage/cohabitation
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feral child
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child reared outside human society
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field experiment
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experimental situation in which researcher observes & studies subjects in their natural setting
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folkways
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weakly sanctioned norms
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formal organization
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group w/ explicit, often written, set of norms, statuses, & roles that specify e/ member's relationships to others & conditions under which those relationships hold
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frequency distribution
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classification of data describing how many observations fall w/in e. category of a variable
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functionalism
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sociological perspective focusing on the ways a complex pattern of social structures & arrangements contribute to social order
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gemeinschaft
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close, personal relationships of small groups & communities
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gender
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culturally defined ways of acting as a male/female that become part of an individual's personal sense of self
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gender role
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set of behaviors considered appropriate for an individual of a particular gender
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gender socialization
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ways in which we learn our gender identity & develop according to cultural norms of masculinity & femininity
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generalized other
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a person's internalized conception of the expectations & attitudes held by society
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genocide
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intentional extermination of one pop by a more dominant pop
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gerontology
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study of aging & older ppl
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gesellschaft
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term used to refer to well-organized but impersonal relationships among the members of modern societies
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ghetto
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section of a city that is segregated racially/culturally
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group
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any collection of ppl who interact w/ one another on the basis of shared expectations regarding one another's behavior
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Hawthorne effect
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unintended effect resulting E attn given to subjects in an experimental situation
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hermaphrodite
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person whose primary sexual organs have features of both male & female organs, making it difficult to categorize the individual as male/female
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heterosexuality
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sexual orientation tws opposite sex
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homogamy
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tendency to marry a person who is similar to oneself in social background
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homosexuality
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sexual orientation twd same sex
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horticultural society
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society whose primary means of subsistence is raising crops, which it plants & cultivates, often developing an extensive system for watering the crops
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human ecology
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sociological perspective emphasizing relationships among social order, social disorganization, & distribution of pops in time & space
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hypothesis
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statement specifying a relationship b/w 2/more variables that c/b tested E empirical observation
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id
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part of human personality E which all innate drives arise
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ideas
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ways of thinking that organize human consciousness
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identification
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social process whereby an individual chooses role models & attempts to imitate their behavior
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ideologies
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systems of values & norms that members of a society are expected to believe in & act on S question
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impression management
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strategies on uses to "set a stage" for one's own purposes
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in-group
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social group to which an individual has a feeling of allegiance; us., but not always, a primary group
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independent variable
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variable the reseracher believes causes a change in another variable
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informal organization
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group whose norms & statuses are generally agreed upon but are not set down in writing
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informed consent
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right of respondents t/b informed of purpose for which info they supply w/b used & to judge degree of personal risk involved in answering questions, even w/ an assurance of confidentiality
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institution
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more/less stable structure of statuses & roles devoted to meeting the basic needs of ppl in a society
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institutional discrimination
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systematic exclusion of ppl E equal participation in a particular institution b/c of group membership
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interactionism
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sociological perspective viewing social order & change as resulting E all repeated interactions among individuals & groups
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interest group
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organization that attempts to influence elected & appointed officials regarding a specific issue/set of issues
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intergenerational mobility
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change in the social class of family member E 1 gen to the next
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internal colonialism
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thry of racial & ethnic inequality that suggests that some minorities are essentially colonial ppls w/in larger society
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intragenerational mobility
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change in the social class of an individual w/in his/her own lifetime
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Jim Crow
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system of formal & informal segregation existing in US E late 1860s to early 1970s
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kinship
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role relations among ppl who consider themselves t/b related by blood, marriage,/adoption
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labeling
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thry explaining deviance as a societal reaction that brands/labels as deviant ppl who engage in certain behaviors
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laissez-faire capitalism
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economic philosophy based on the belief that the wealth of a nation c/b measured by its capacity to produce goods & services & that these c/b maximized by free trade
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laws
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norms written by specialists, collected in codes/manuals of behaviour, & interpreted & applied by other specialists
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legal authority
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authority legitimated by ppl's belief in the supremacy of the law; obedience is owed not to a person but to a set of impersonal principles
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legitimacy
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ability of a society to engender & maintain belief that existing political institutions are most appropriate for that society
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life chances
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opportunities an individual will have/be denied Eout life as a result of his/her social-class position
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life course
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pathway along an age-differentiated, socially created sequence of transitions
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life expectancy
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average no. of years a member of a given pop can expect to live
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lifetime negative experiences
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experiences that cause long-term stress, ie death of child/spouse
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linguistic-relativity hypothesis
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belief that language determines possibilities for thought & action in any given culture
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lobbying
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process whereby interest groups seek to persuade legislators to vote in their favor on particular bills
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long-distance upward mobility
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form of upward mobility in which a person rises during his/her own lifetime E low family status to membership in a professional/managerial elite
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macro-level sociology
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approach to study of society focusing on major structures & institutions of society
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market
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economic institution regulating exchange behavior E est. of different values for particular goods & services
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mass
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large no. of ppl who are all oriented twd a set of shared symbols/social objects
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mass public
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large pop of potential spectators/participants who engage in collective behavior
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master status
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status taking precedence over all of an individual's other statuses
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material culture
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patterns of possessing & using products of culture
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megalopolis
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complex of cities distributed along a major axis of traffic and communication, w/ total pop exceeding 25mil
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mercantilism
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economic philosophy based on belief tat wealth of a nation c/b measured by its holdings of gold/other precious metals & the state should control trade
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metropolitan area
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central city surrounded by no. of smaller cities & suburbs closely related to it socially & economically
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micro-level sociology
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approach to study of socity focusing on patterns of scoial interaction at individual level
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middle-level sociology
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approach to study of society focusing on relationships b/w social structures & individual
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minority group
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pop that, b/c of members' physical/cultural characteristics, is singled out E others in society for differential & unequal tx
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modernization
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changes experienced by societies & individuals as a result of industrialization, urbanization, & development of nation-states
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monotheistic
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term used to describe a theistic belief system centered on belief in single all-powerful God
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mores
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strongly sanctioned norms
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multinational corporation
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economic enterprise w/ headquarters in one country & conducting business in one/more other countries
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nationalism
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belief of ppl that they have the right & duty to consitute themselves as a nation-state
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nation-state
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largest territory w/in which a society's political institutions can operate S facing challenges to their sovereignty
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natural selection
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relative success of organisms w/ specific genetic mutations in reproducing new generations w/ new trait
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nonterritorial community
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newtork of relationships formed @ shared goals
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normative order
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array of norms permitting a society to achieve relatively peaceful social control
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norms
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specific rules of behavior
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nuclear family
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2/more ppl related by blood, marriage,/adoption who share a household
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objective class
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social class w/ visible, specific relationship to means of production
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occupational prestige
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honor/prestige attributed to specific occupations by adults in a society
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oligarchy
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rule by a few ppl who stay in office indefinitely rather than for limited terms
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open question
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question not requeiring respondent to choose from predetermined answers. Respondent may answer in his/her own words
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open society
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society in which social mobility is possible for everyone
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open stratification system
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stratification system in which boundaries b/w social strata are easily crossed
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opinion leader
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individual who consistently influences attitudes & behavior of others
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out-group
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any social group to which an individual does not have a feeling of allegiance; m/b in competition/conflict w/ in-group
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paradigm
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model comprising existing thries & methods; general way of seeing world that dictates what kind of scientific work s/b done & what kinds of thry are acceptable
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participant observation
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form of observation in which researcher participates to some degree in lives of ppl being observed
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pastoral society
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society whose primary means of subsistence is herding animals & moving w/ them over wide expanse of grazing land
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patriarchy
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dominance of men over women
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patronage
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jobs & economic benefits that party leaders can exchange for votes & political influence
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peer group
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interacting group of ppl of @ same age w/ significant influence on norms & values of members
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percent analysis
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mathematical operation transforming absolute no. into proportion as part of 100
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peripheral area
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region supplying basic resources & labor power to more advanced states
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plea bargaining
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process in which a person charged w/ a crime agrees to plead guilty to a lesser charge
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pluralist model
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thry stating no single group controls political decisions; plurality of interest groups influence those decisions E process of coalition building & bargaining
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pluralistic society
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society in which different ethnic & racial groups are able to maintain their own cultures & lifestyles while gaining equality in the institutions of the larger society
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political institution
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set of norms & statuses pertaining to exercise of power & authority
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political party
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organization of ppl who join together to gain legitimate control of state authority
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political revolution
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set of changes in political structures & leadership of a society
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polytheistic
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theistic belief system incl numerous gods
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power
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ability to control behavior of others, even against their will
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power-elite model
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thry stating that political decisions are controlled by an elite of rich & powerful individuals even in societies w/ democratic political institutions
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prejudice
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attitude that pejudges a person based on real/imagined characteristic of a group to which that person belongs
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primary deviance
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act resulting in labeling of the offender as deviant
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primary group
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small group characterized by intimate, face-to-face associations
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privacy
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right of a respondent to define when & on what terms his/her actions m/b revealed to general public
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profane
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phenomena not considered sacred
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profession
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occupation w/ body of knowledge & developed intellectual technique transmitted by formal educational process & testing procedures
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projection
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psychological process whereby we atribute to other ppl behaviors & attitudes that we are unwilling to accept in ourselves
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psychosocial risk behaviors
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behaviors that are detrimental to health
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public opinion
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values & attitudes held by mass publics
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race
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inbreeding pop devloping distinctive physical characteristics that are hereditary
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racism
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ideology based on belief that an observable, supposedly inherited trat is a mark of inferiority that justifies discriminatory tx of ppl w/ that trait
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rate of reproductive change
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difference b/w crude birthrate & crude death rate for given pop
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recidivist
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criminal who is returned to prison after having served at least 1 term there
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reference group
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group that an individual uses as a frame of reference for self-evaluation & attitude formation
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relative deprivation
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deprivation as determined by comparison w/ others rather than by some objective measure
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religion
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set of coherent answers to dilemmas of human existence making the world meaningful; system of beliefs & ritual serving to bind ppl together into a social group
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religiosity
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depth of a person's religious feelings
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resocialization
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intense, deliberate socialization designed to change major beliefs & behaviors
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rite of passage
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ceremony marking transition to a new stage of a culturally defined life course
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ritual
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formal pattern of activity that expresses symbolically a set of shared meanings
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role
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way a society defines how an individual is to behave in a particular status
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role conflict
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conflict occurring when in order to perform 1 role well a person must violate the expectations associated w/ another role
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role expectations
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society's expectations @ how a role s/b performed, together w/ the individual's perceptions of what is requred in performing that role
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role strain
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conflict occurring when the expectations associated w/ a single role are contradictory
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role taking
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trying to look at social situations E standpoint of another person E whome 1 seeks a response
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sacred
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term used to describe phenomena regarded as extraordinary, transcendent, & outside everyday course of events
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sample
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set of respondents selected E specific pop
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sample survey
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survey administered to selection of respondents drawn E specific pop
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sanctions
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rewards & punishments for abiding by/violating norms
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scapegoat
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convenient target for hostility
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science
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knowledge obtained as a result of process of developing & testing hypotheses
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scientific method
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process by which thries & explanations are contructed E repeated observation & careful description
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secondary deviance
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behavior engaged in as a reaction to experience of being labeled as a deviant
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secondary group
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social group whose members have shared goal/purpose but are not bound together by strong emotional ties
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sect
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religious organization rejecting beliefs & practices of existing churches; us. formed when a group leaves the church to form a rival organization
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secularization
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process where dominance of religion over other institutions is reduced
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segregation
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ecological & institutional separation of races/ethnic groups
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semiperipheral area
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state/region in which industry & financial institutions are developed to some extent but that remains dependent on capital & technology provided by other states
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sex
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biological differences b/w males & females, incl primary sex characteristics present @ birth & secondary sex characteristics developing later
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sexism
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ideology justifying prejudice & discrimination based on sex
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sexuality
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manner in which a person engages in the intimate behaviors connected w/ genital stimulation, orgasm, & procreation
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significant other
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any person who is imp. to an individual
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simple supernaturalism
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form of religion in which ppl may believe in great force/spirit but do not have a well-defined concept of God/set of rituals involving God
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slavery
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ownership of 1 racial, ehtnic,/politically determined group by another group w/ complete control over the enslaved group
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social category
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collection of individuals grouped together b/c they share a trait deemed by observer t/b socially relevant
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social change
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variations over time in ecological ordering of pops & communities, patterns of roles & social interactions, structure & functioning of institutions, & cultures of societies
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social conditions
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realities of the life we create together as social beings
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social control
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set of rules & understandings controlling behavior of individuals & groups in a particular culture
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social Darwinism
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notion that ppl who are more successful @ adapting to environ are more likely to survive & have children who will also be successful
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social group
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set of 2/more individuals who share a sense of common identity & belonging & who interact on a regular basis
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social mobility
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mov't by individual/group E 1 social stratum to another
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social movement
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orgaized collective behavior aimed @ changing/reforming social institutions/social order itself
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social revolution
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complete transformation of social order, incl institutions of gov't & system of stratification
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social stratification
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society's system for ranking ppl hierarchically according to wealth, power, & prestige; prcess whereby members of a society are sorted into different statuses
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social structure
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recurring patterns of behavior creating relationships smong individuals & groups w/in a society
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socialism
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economic philosophy based on concept of pblic ownership of property & sharing of profits, together w/ belief that economic decisions s/b controlled by workers
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socialization
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processes whereby we learn to behave according to norms of our culture
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society
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pop organized in cooperative manner to carry out major functions of life
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sociobiology
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hypothesis that all human behavior is determind by genetic factors
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socioeconomic status (SES)
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broad social-class ranking based on occupational status, family prestige, educational attainment, & earned income
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sociological imagination
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ability to see how social conditions affect our lives
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sociology
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scientific study of human socieites & human behavior in groups making up a society
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spatial mobility
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mov't of individual/group E 1 location/community to another
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state
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set of political institutions operating in particular society
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status
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socially defined position in a group
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status group
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category of ppl w/in social class, defined by how much honor/prestige they receive E society in general
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status symbols
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material objects/behaviorsindicating social status/prestige
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stereotype
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inflexible image of members of a particular group held S regard to whether it is true
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stigma
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attribute/qulaity of an individual that is deeply discrediting
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structural mobility
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mov't of individual/group E 1 social stratum to another caused by elimination of an entire class as a result of changes in means of existence
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subculture
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group of ppl holding many values & norms of larger culture but also hold certain beliefs, values,/norms setting them apart E that culture
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subjective class
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way members of a given social class perceive their situation as a class
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superego
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part of human personality that internalized the moral codes of adults
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sustainable development
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development not damaging environ/creaing new environ'l burdens
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technologies
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products & norms for using them found in a given culture
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technology
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tools, procedures, & forms of social organization increasing human productive capactiy; use of tools & knowledge to manipulate physical environ in order to achieve desired practical goals
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technology assessment
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efforts to anticipate consequences of particular technologies for individuals & society as a whole
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terrtorial community
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pop fuctioning w/in a particular geographic area
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theism
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belief system conceiving of a god/gods as separate E humans & E other living things on earth
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theoretical perspective
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set of interrelated thries offering explanations for imp. aspects of social behavior
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theory
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set of interrelated concepts seeking to explain causes of an observable phenomenon
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total institution
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setting in which ppl undergoing resocialization are isolated E larger society under control of a specialized staff
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totalitarian regime
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regime that accepts no limits to its power & seeks to exert its rule at all levels of society
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traditional authority
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authority that is hereditary & is legitimated by traditional values, particularly ppl's idea of the sacred
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transsexuals
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ppl who feel very strongly that the sexual organs they were born w/ do not conform to their deep-seated sense of what their sex s/b
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triad
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group consisting of 3 ppl
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two-step flow of communication
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process in which messages communicated by the media are evaluated by certain respected individuals, who in turn influence attitudes & behaviors of others
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unobtrusive measures
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observational techniques measuring behavior but intruding as little as possible into actual social settings
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upward mobility
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mov't by individual/group to a higher social stratum
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urbanization
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process in which an increasing proportion of a total pop becomes concentrated in urban settlements
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values
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ideas supporting/justifying norms
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variable
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characteristic of an individual, group,/society that can vary E 1 case to another
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voluntary association
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formal organization whose members pursue shared interests & arrive @ decisions E some sort of democratic process
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welfare capitalism
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economic philosophy in which markets determine what goods w/b produced & how, but gov't regulates economic competition
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