Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
186 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What is the basic unit of biology?
|
The Cell
|
|
What is the study of cellular structure and organization?
|
BioImaging
|
|
What is the study of chemical reactions of biomolecules (enzyme-catalyzed reactions, metabolic pathways)?
|
Biochemistry
|
|
What is the study of interactions and regulation between cellular systems involving DNA, RNA and protein synthesis?
|
Molecular Biology
|
|
Who first invented the light microscope?
|
Robert Hooke
|
|
Who coined the word cell?
|
Robert Hooke
|
|
Who improved on the microscope?
|
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
|
|
What is one of the cell biologists most important tools?
|
The Light Microscope
|
|
What is the limit of resolution of light microscopy?
|
0.2 um
|
|
What is the advantage that the light microscope has?
|
Live-Cell imaging
|
|
What is the ability to discriminate two closely placed structures?
|
Resolution
|
|
What is a measure of the increase in the diameter of a structure?
|
Magnification
|
|
What is a contrast that involves light absorption?
|
Amplitude Contrast
|
|
What is a contrast that involves a change in wave phase?
|
Phase Contrast
|
|
What type of instrument utilizes a focused laser beam to provide an attractive or repulsive force?
|
Optical Tweezers
|
|
What type of microscopy is useful in detecting specific fluorescent labeled proteins or molecules?
|
Fluorescence Microscopy
|
|
What is a molecule that will emit a characteristic wave length of light when excited by a specific wave length?
|
Fluorochrome
|
|
What is the strategy for epifluorescence microscopy for dead cells?
|
Indirect immuno-fluorescence
|
|
How many antibodies are involved in Indirect Immuno-fluorescence?
|
Two, a primary (binds to the protein) and a secondary (binds to the primary antibody)
|
|
In indirect immuno-fluorescence where is the fluorescent molecule attached?
|
To the secondary antibody
|
|
What are the advantages of confocal microscopy?
|
Increased clarity of images
Creation of Optical Sections Three Dimensional Information |
|
What is the strategy for epifluorescence microscopy for living cells?
|
Green Fluorescent Protein integration and dyes.
|
|
What are the two types of electron microscopy?
|
Scanning Electron Microscopy
Transmission Electron Microscopy |
|
Who developed the electron microscope?
|
Knoll and Ruska
|
|
How much stronger (in fold) is the electron microscope as opposed to the light microscope?
|
1000-fold
|
|
How thick are cross sections in transmission microscopy?
|
70nm
|
|
What is the most widely used procedure to separate subcellular structures?
|
Centrifugation
|
|
What is repeated centrifugation at progressively higher speeds?
|
Differential centrifugation
|
|
What components of a solution require greater force to sediment during centrifugation?
|
The smaller and less dense components
|
|
Which type of centrifugation requires the use of a chemical gradient (sucrose or cesium chloride)?
|
Equilibrium centrifugation
|
|
What does an SDS-PAGE separate proteins by?
|
Size
|
|
Who developed the southern blot?
|
Edwin Southern
|
|
What method can be employed to separate cells of a particular type from a mixture (based on fluorescence)
|
Flow Cytometery
|
|
What are the four buildung blocks of the cell?
|
Sugars
Fatty Acids Amino Acids Nucleotides |
|
What are the simplest sugars?
|
Monosaccharides
|
|
What type of saccharide is glucose?
|
Monosaccharide, a simple sugar
|
|
What type of reaction occurs when two monosaccharides form a disaccharide?
|
A condensation reaction
|
|
What is the term for a reaction requiring energy?
|
Anabolic
|
|
What is the term for a reaction that releases energy?
|
Catabolic
|
|
What type of reaction is seen in the breakdown of polysaccharides?
|
Hydrolysis
|
|
Oligosaccharides constitute approximately how many monosaccharides?
|
3-50
|
|
What is an example of a polysaccharide made entirely of glucose units?
|
Glycogen
|
|
What are the three functions of sugars?
|
Production and Storage of Energy
Mechanical Support (cellulose) Molecular Recognition (glycoproteins) |
|
What are the two types of fatty acids?
|
Saturated and Unsaturated
|
|
Which type of fatty acid is often a liquid at room temperature?
|
unsaturated
|
|
Which type of fatty acid contains no double bonds?
|
Saturated
|
|
What do fatty acids form for energy storage?
|
Triacylglycerols
|
|
What cellular building block makes up a component of cell membranes?
|
Fatty Acids (Phospholipids)
|
|
What is the term for the carbon that links the carboxyl and amino group of an amino acid?
|
The alpha carbon
|
|
What are the four basic categories of amino acids?
|
Acidic
Basic Uncharged Polar Nonpolar |
|
What links amino acids?
|
Peptide Bonds
|
|
What type of reaction joins amino acids together?
|
Condensation reaction
|
|
How is a polypeptide sequence read?
|
From the N terminus to the C terminus
|
|
What links nucleic acids together?
|
Phosphodiester bonds
|
|
What links the three phosphate bonds in ATP?
|
Phosphoanhydride Bonds
|
|
What are the functions of nucleotides?
|
Combine to form coenzymes (CoA)
Used in cellular signaling (cAMP) Used in DNA, RNA Carry Chemical Energy (ATP) |
|
What two reactions constitute the cell's metabolism?
|
Catabolism and Anabolism
|
|
What type of chemical pathway is used in the breakdown of food and smaller molecules?
|
Catabolic Pathways
|
|
What type of pathway is used when harnessing energy to drive synthesis?
|
Anabolic Pathways
|
|
What organizes cell metabolism?
|
Enzymes
|
|
What law of thermodynamics states that the universe likes to be disordered?
|
The Second Law
|
|
What measures disorder in a system?
|
Entropy
|
|
How do living cells not defy the second law of thermodynamics?
|
The amount of order inside the cells causes a decrease in order outside the cell.
|
|
How do anabolic unfavorable reactions occur?
|
They must be coupled to a second reaction with a larger negative gibbs free energy to cause the entire process to be negative.
|
|
What does the cell use to store energy temporarily?
|
Activated carrier molecules
|
|
What are the two most important activated carrier molecules?
|
ATP and NADH
|
|
What gives amino acids its unique properties?
|
The Side Chains
|
|
What assists protein folding?
|
Molecular Chaperones (proteins)
|
|
What are three types of noncovalent bonds?
|
Electrostatic Attractions
Hydrogen Bonds Van-Der-Waals Attractions |
|
What type of force is produced by fluctuations in electron clouds of atoms?
|
Van-Der-Waals Attractions
|
|
What force often causes proteins to fold into compact conformations?
|
Hydrophobic Forces
|
|
When do disulfide bonds form?
|
When proteins are exported from cell
|
|
Can Denatured proteins recover their natural shape?
|
Yes
|
|
Who sequenced the first protein and what was it?
|
Frederick Sanger
Insulin |
|
What is used to determine the structure of large proteins?
|
X-Ray Crystallography
|
|
What is used to determine the structure of small protein molecules?
|
NMR
|
|
What is the resolution of X-Ray Crystallography?
|
0.1nm
|
|
What are the two common folding patterns of proteins?
|
Alpha Helix and Beta Sheet
|
|
What makes folding patterns common?
|
The Hydrogen Bonds in the polypeptide backbone
|
|
Are amino acid side chains involved when forming the folding pattern hydrogen bonding?
|
No
|
|
Keratin and Myosin are examples of what type of folding?
|
Alpha Helix
|
|
What are the two varieties of Beta Sheet folding?
|
Antiparallel and Parallel
|
|
Anti-Freeze Protein is an example of what type of folding?
|
Beta Sheet
|
|
What type of structure is only the amino acid sequence?
|
Primary Structure
|
|
What type of structure includes the folding patterns (alpha helices and beta sheets)?
|
Secondary structure
|
|
What type of structure is a fully three dimensional structure?
|
Tertiary Structure
|
|
What type of structure includes a complex of more than one polypeptide chain?
|
Quaternary Structure
|
|
What is the term for a segment of a polypeptide chain that can fold independently into a compact stable structure?
|
Protein Domain
|
|
About how many amino acids are found in a protein domain?
|
100-250 Amino Acids
|
|
What is the substance that is bound by a protein referred to?
|
A ligand
|
|
What is the term for the location where the protein associates with a ligand?
|
A binding site
|
|
Why does a protein have a high degree of specificity?
|
The many weak noncovalent bonds allows for a lock-and-key type fit
|
|
What are proteins produced by the immune system in response to foreign materials?
|
Antibodies or Immunoglobulins
|
|
What is the target of an antibody?
|
Antigen
|
|
What is an antibody made of?
|
Two heavy and two light chains held by disulfide bonds
|
|
What are proteins that utilize ligands in their first step for function?
|
Enzymes
|
|
What are the molecules that enzymes bind to called?
|
Substrates
|
|
What is the specific term for the binding site of an enzyme?
|
Active Site
|
|
What is the term for the inhibition of enzyme activity by the product of the reaction?
|
Feedback Inhibition
|
|
What is the regulation when a molecule binds to deactivate an enzyme?
|
Allosteric Regulation
|
|
What type of regulation utilizes protein kinases and protein phosphatases?
|
Protein Phosphorylation
|
|
What is an example of protein phosphorylation regulation?
|
GTP-binding proteins
|
|
What is the control center of the cell?
|
Nucleus
|
|
Who was the first to isolate the nucleus?
|
Miescher
|
|
Who identified the base, sugar, and phosphate nucleotide unit?
|
Levene
|
|
Who performed the experiment with smooth and rough streptococcus pneumoniae on mice?
|
Griffith
|
|
Who identified DNA as the transforming principle?
|
Avery-MacLeod-McCarty
|
|
Who showed that DNA is the genetic material of the T2 phage?
|
Hershey and Chase
|
|
Describe the Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment
|
They separated out all of the molecules of the cell, and found that only DNA (not RNA, protein, lipid, nor carbohydrates) would transform a rough strain into a smooth strain
|
|
Who first came up with the idea of molecular modeling without exact knowledge of coordinates?
|
Pauling and Corey
|
|
What are the two purines?
|
Adenine and Guanine
|
|
What are the two pyrimidines?
|
Thymine and Cytosine
|
|
What is the most important function of chromosomes?
|
To carry genes
|
|
What are the two phases of the cell cycle?
|
Interphase and M-Phase
|
|
What phase of the cell cycle does chromosome duplication occur?
|
Interphase
|
|
What types of bases are replication origins rich in?
|
A=T base pairs
|
|
What does DNA do when the cell hits M-Phase?
|
Condenses to form mitotic chromosomes
|
|
What is the DNA region required for orderly separation?
|
Centromere
|
|
What is the complex of proteins with nuclear DNA?
|
Chromatin
|
|
What are the packing proteins for DNA?
|
Histones
|
|
What is the first and most fundamental level of chromatin packing?
|
The Nucleosome
|
|
What does the packing of the nucleosome rely on?
|
Histone H1 Protein
|
|
What are the extended portions of interphase chromosomes called?
|
Euchromatin
|
|
What are the condensed portions of interphase chromosomes called?
|
Heterochromatin
|
|
How do packed genes get expressed?
|
Chromatin remodeling complexes and chemical modification of histones
|
|
At what speed does DNA replication occur?
|
1000 nt/sec
|
|
What is the central enzyme of the replication machine?
|
DNA Polymerase
|
|
About how many DNA polymerases are found in Eucaryotes?
|
About 15
|
|
What are the Y-shaped junctions during replication called?
|
Replication Forks
|
|
What enzyme cleaves mispared nucleotides?
|
Nuclease
|
|
Which direction does proofreading take place?
|
3' - 5'
|
|
About how many times does DNA polymerase make an error?
|
About one error per 10^7 nt pairs
|
|
What initializes the binding of DNA polymerase?
|
an RNA Primer
|
|
What is the enzyme that synthesizes the RNA primer?
|
Primase
|
|
What erases the old RNA primer from the okazaki fragments?
|
RNA nuclease
|
|
What seals the nicks of the Okazaki fragments?
|
DNA ligase
|
|
What molecule facilitates the opening of the DNA double helix?
|
DNA Helicase
|
|
What molecule stablizes the open DNA?
|
Single Stranded Binding Proteins
|
|
What keeps the polymerase attached to the template?
|
Sliding Clamps
|
|
What molecule hydrolyzes ATP each time it locks a sliding clamp around the DNA?
|
Clamp Loader
|
|
What allows the lagging strand to be completed by DNA polymerase?
|
Telomerase
|
|
What is the backup system to repair mistakes in DNA replication?
|
DNA Mismatch Repair System
|
|
What are permanent changes to DNA?
|
Mutations
|
|
What type of DNA damage results in the loss of purine bases (A,G)?
|
Depurination
|
|
What is the result of depurination?
|
Results in gaps in the double helix
|
|
What type of DNA damage is the loss of amino groups from cytosine?
|
Deamination
|
|
What is the result of deamination?
|
The change of cytosine to uracil
|
|
What is the result of ultraviolet DNA damage?
|
The production of thymine dimers
|
|
What is the most common mean of repairing double-strand breaks?
|
Nonhomologous End-Joining
|
|
What is the disadvantage to nonhomologous end-joining?
|
It sacrafices information contained at the injury site
|
|
When does homologous recombination occur?
|
Shortly after DNA replication
|
|
What is the repair mechanism utilized with genetic information provided by an entirely separate DNA duplex is used to repair a break accurately?
|
Homologous Recombination
|
|
What is the advantage of homologous recombination?
|
It allows for the flawless repair of DNA strand breaks
|
|
What are short sequences of DNA that can move from one position to another within the genome?
|
Mobile Genetic Elements
|
|
What do MGE's provide to the genome?
|
Genetic Variation
|
|
What are transposons, retrotransposons, insertion sequences, plasmids, and bactriophase elements?
|
Mobile Genetic Elements
|
|
Who discovered Mobile Genetic Elements?
|
McClintock
|
|
What type of transposons are unique to eucaryotes?
|
Retrotransposons
|
|
What are the most common transposons in bacteria?
|
DNA-only transposons
|
|
What is the process name when DNA -> RNA?
|
transcription
|
|
What is the process when RNA -> Protein?
|
translation
|
|
What does the extra OH group in RNA do to the molecule?
|
It makes RNA less stable and more susceptible to hydrolysis
|
|
What allows RNA to fold into a three dimensional molecule?
|
The single stranded nature allows for base-pairing with complementary sequences
|
|
What types of RNA are genes and not translated into a protein?
|
non-coding RNA
|
|
In what direction does transcription take place?
|
5'-3'
|
|
What are the enzymes that carry out transcription called?
|
RNA polymerases
|
|
What are the three stages of transcription?
|
Initiation
Elongation Termination |
|
What is the "start transcribing" signal in a nucleotide sequence called?
|
Promoter
|
|
What is a component of a promoter region?
|
TATA box
|
|
What recognizes the TATA box?
|
Transcription Factors
|
|
What TF is essential for elongation to occur after binding?
|
TFIIH
|
|
Does RNA polymerase require a primer?
|
No
|
|
Does RNA polymerase have proofreading capability?
|
Sleight
|
|
What stops the RNA synthesis and begins termination?
|
A terminal Sequence
|
|
What are the two RNA processing steps for mRNA?
|
5' G Capping
Poly-A Tail Addition |
|
What does the RNA processing do for the mRNA strand?
|
It increases the stability of mRNA and helps transport it out of the nucleus
|
|
What is added to the 5' end of mRNA?
|
A guanine nucleotide with a methyl group
|
|
About how many Adenine nucleotides are added to the poly-A tail of mRNA?
|
150-200
|
|
What is the process where introns are removed and exons are stitched together?
|
RNA splicing
|
|
When does RNA splicing take place?
|
After capping
|
|
How does the cell determine which parts of the mRNA are introns?
|
Each intron has short nucleotide sequence cues
|
|
What structure is formed when splicing machinery cuts out the introns?
|
A lariat Structure
|
|
What carries out RNA splicing?
|
Spliceosome
|
|
What forms the core of the spliceosome?
|
small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs)
|
|
Where does transcription take place?
|
Inside the nucleus
|
|
Where does translation take place?
|
In the cytoplasm
|