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132 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Define "External Respiration"
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Gas Exchange between air in lungs and the blood (CO2 and O2)
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Define "internal respiration"
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Gas exchange between the blood and tissues
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What are the functions of the respiratory system?
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Gas Exchange
Regulation of Blood PH (by changing CO2 levels) Voice production Olfaction Protection (Mucus + cilia) |
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How the the respiratory system divided?
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Upper Tract (Everything pharynx and above)
Lower Tract (Larynx and below) |
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Define Nares
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Nostrils
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Define Nasal septum
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Divides nasal cavity into left/right parts
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Nasal conchae
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Bony ridges on nasal cavity wall, increase surface area, loaded with BVs
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Functions of the nasal cavity
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-Passageway for air
-Cleans the air -Humidifies and warms the air -Smell -Resonating chamber for speech (with paranasal sinuses) |
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Function of pharynx
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Common opening for digestive/respiratory system
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Three regions of pharynx and their construction
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-Nasopharynx: pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells. Mucous and debris is swallowed.
–Oropharynx: shared with digestive system. Lined with moist stratified squamous epithelium. –Laryngopharynx: epiglottis to esophagus. Lined with moist stratified squamous epithelium |
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Larynx general function
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passageway for air between pharynx and trachea
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Larynx construction
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Made of hyaline cartilage - more specifically includes the thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage and arytenoid cartilage.
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Larynx specific functions
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-Maintain an open passageway for air thyroid and cricoid cartilages
-Epiglottis prevents swallowed material from getting into the trachea -Vocal folds for sound production -cilia traps debris |
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Construction of the trachea
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-dense regular connective tissue supported by 15-20 hyaline cartilage C-shaped rings that open posteriorly
-Smooth muscle called trachealis contracts during coughing -Lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells |
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DIscuss the trachea at it's division, and what it forms
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-Divides to form left and right primary bronchi
-Carina: cartilage at bifurcation. Membrane of carina especially sensitive to irritation and inhaled objects initiate the cough reflex |
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Discuss branching of bronchi
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– Trachea divides into two primary
bronchi. – Primary bronchi divide into secondary bronchi (one/lobe) which then divide into tertiary bronchi. –Tertiary bronchi further subdivide into smaller and smaller bronchi then into bronchioles , finally into terminal bronchioles. |
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Discuss terminal bronchioles
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Terminal bronchioles contain no cartilage, only smooth muscle (contracts during asthama attack)
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What are alveoli?
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-Small air- filled chambers; made up of small squamous epithelium (respiratory membrane)
-Where the gas exchange occurs -Contain macrophages - Lined on the inside with surfactant |
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Three types of cells that make up the respiratory membrane
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-Type I pneumocytes. Thin squamous epithelial cells, form 90% of surface of alveolus. For gas exchange.
-Type II pneumocytes. Round to cube-shaped secretory cells. Produce surfactant. – Dust cells (phagocytes) |
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5 reasons that gas exchange at the respiratory membrane is so efficient
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• The differences in gas pressure across the membrane are substantial
• The distances involved in gas exchange are small. • The gases are lipid soluble. • The total surface area is large. • Blood flow and air flow are coordinated. |
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Discuss the lungs physical descriptors
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– Base sits on diaphragm, apex at the top,hilus on medial surface where
bronchi and blood vessels enter the lung. |
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How many lobes for each lung?
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-Right lung: three lobes. Lobes separated by fissures
– Left lung:Two lobes |
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Divisions within the lung
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– Lobes (supplied by secondary bronchi)
-bronchopulmonary segments (supplied by tertiary bronchi and separated from one another by connective tissue partitions) -lobules (supplied by bronchioles and separated by incomplete partitions). |
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Discuss the pleura
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• Visceral pleura: adherent to lung. Simple squamous epithelium, serous.
• Parietal pleura: adherent to internal thoracic wall. |
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Discuss the Pleural cavity
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Surrounds each lung filled with pleural fluid.
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Pleural fluid
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acts as a lubricant and helps hold the two pleural membranes close together (adhesion).
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Mediastinum
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central region, contains contents of thoracic cavity except for lungs.
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Discuss the lungs blood supply
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-Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to the pulmonary arteries and then pulmonary capillaries into the lungs, where the blood becomes oxygenated. The oxygenated blood leaves the lungs via pulmonary veins and returns to the heart to be pumped to the body.
- Capillary beds surround each alveolus and rapid gas exchange occurs at the respiratory membrane. |
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Define ventilation
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• Process of moving air into and out of the lungs
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Discuss boyle's law
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In a closed container, pressure is inversely proportional to volume. (lungs get smaller, air exits)
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Muscles used during inhalation
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– Diaphragm
– External intercoastals – Pectoralis minor |
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Muscles used during exhalation
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-Abdominal muscle
-Internal intercoastals |
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Why measure lung function?
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Can be used to diagnose, track progress, and track recovery of diseases
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What is compliance with regard to lung function
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The measure of the ease with which the lungs and thorax expand
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What is Spirometry
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measures the volume of air that move into and out of respiratory system. Uses a spirometer
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What is Tidal volume
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The amount of air inspired or expired with each breath. At rest: 500 mL
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What is inspiratory reserve volume
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amount of air that can be inspired forcefully after inspiration of the tidal volume (3000 mL at rest)
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What is Expiratory reserve volume
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amount of air that can be forcefully expired after expiration of the tidal volume (100 mL at rest)
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What is Residual volume
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volume still remaining in respiratory passages and lungs after most forceful expiration (1200 mL)
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Components of air
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Nitrogen: 78.6 %
Oxygen: 20.9% Carbon dioxide: 0.04 % Water : 0.5% |
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Normal atmospheric pressure
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760 mmHg
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Discuss hemoglobin's ability to bind to O2
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-98.5 % oxygen (in blood) is bound to Hb: oxyhemoglobin
-Each Hb can bind 4 O2 and each RBC contains about 280 million Hb molecules. -The percentage of heme units containg bound O2 at any given moment is hemoglobin saturation |
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Discuss hemoglobin saturation
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-Hemoglobin will be 100% saturated with oxygen if four oxygen molecules were bound to all Hb molecules in the blood
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What is the Bohr effect?
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• When blood ph decreases, the amount of oxygen bound to Hb decreases. The H+ ions bind to Hb causing its shape to change and O2 is dumped.
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How is carbon dioxide primary moved in blood?
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Carbonic anhydrase (H+ and HCO3)
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How does increased temperature affect the O2-Hb dissociation curve
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-• Elevated temperature resulting from increased metabolism, increase the amount of oxygen released into the tissues by hemoglobin.
-The tissue that are less active will use less O2, saving it for the tissues that need it |
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Discuss fetal respiration
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Essentially, placenta provides respiration
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Fetal hemoglobin
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• Concentration of fetal hemoglobin is 50% greater than concentration of maternal hemoglobin
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How is CO2 transported, specifically with percentages
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-7% remains in plasma as CO2
-70 % is converted to H2CO3 (carbonic acid) inside RBC - 23% is bound to hemoglobin inside RBC(Carboaminoglobin) |
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Discuss Carbonic acid in the RBC
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• Most of H+ will bind to Hb(acting as a pH buffer inside the RBC’s)
-• The HCO3- is moved out of the RBC into the plasma (to act as a plasma buffer), in exchange for Cl- ions = Chloride shift |
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What are the two areas of the brainstem that provide respiration
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Medullary respiratory center
– Dorsalgroupsstimulatethe diaphragm – Ventralgroupsstimulatethe intercostal and abdominal muscles Pontine (pneumotaxic) respiratory group – Involvedwithswitching between inspiration and expiration |
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Discuss Hyper and hypocapnia
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– Hypercapnia: greater-than-normal amount of carbon dioxide
– Hypocapnia: lower-than-normal amount of carbon dioxide -Triggers a large increase or decrease in respiration |
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Where are the chemical controls for respiration?
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– Central chemoreceptors: chemosensitive area of the medulla oblongata; connected to respiratory center
– Peripheral chemoreceptors: carotid and aortic bodies. Connected to respiratory center by cranial nerves IX and X |
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How do carotid and aortic body respond to decreased pO2 in the blood?
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increased stimulation of respiratory center to keep it active despite decreasing oxygen levels
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Define Hypoxia
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decrease in oxygen levels below normal values
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WHat is the Herin-Breuer Reflex?
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• Limits the degree of inspiration and prevents overinflation of the lungs
– Infants • Reflex plays a role in regulating basic rhythm of breathing and preventing overinflation of lungs – Adults • Reflex important only when tidal volume large as in exercise |
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Discuss the effects of exercise on ventilation
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• Ventilation increases abruptly
– At onset of exercise – Movement of limbs has strong influence – Learned component • Ventilation increases gradually – After immediate increase, gradual increase occurs (4-6 minutes) – Anaerobic threshold: highest level of exercise without causing significant change in blood pH. If exceeded, lactic acid produced by skeletal muscles |
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Discuss the effects of aging on ventilation
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• Vital capacity and maximum minute ventilation decrease
• Residual volume and dead space increase • Ability to remove mucus from respiratory passageways decreases • Gas exchange across respiratory membrane is reduced |
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Discuss the effects of Athletic training and how the respiratory system adapts
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– Vital capacity increases slightly; residual volume decreases slightly
– At maximal exercise, tidal volume and minute ventilation increases – Gas exchange between alveoli and blood increases at maximal exercise – Alveolar ventilation increases – Increased cardiovascular efficiency leads to greater blood flow through the lungs |
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Define apnea
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Cessation of breathing. Can be conscious decision, but eventually PCO2 levels increase to point that respiratory center overrides
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Discuss hyperventilation
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Causes decrease in blood PCO2 level. Peripheral vasodilation causes decrease in BP. Fainting. Problem before diving.
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Other modifications of ventilation
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• Activation of touch, thermal and pain receptors affect respiratory center
• Sneeze reflex, cough reflex • Increase in body temperature yields increase in ventilation |
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Where do the nervous system and endocrine system interact
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Hypothalamus and the pituitary gland (Connected by infundibulus)
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Another name for the posterior pituitary
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Neurohypophysis (Neurohormones)
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Another name for the anterior pituitary
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Adonehypophysis
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What is the hypophyseal portal system?
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Connection between hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
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What is a fenestrated capillary
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Capillaries with tiny gaps, more permeable
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What is a portal vessel?
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A Blood vessel that beggins in a primary capillary network, and ends in a secondary capillary network
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What does the Hypothalamus secrete?
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Either releasing hormones or inhibiting hormones
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GHRH
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Growth Hormone releasing hormone - secreted by Hypothalamus, causes anterior pituitary to release growth hormone
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TRH
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Thyrotropin releasing hormone - causes anterior pituitary to secrete Thyroid stimulating hormone
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CRH
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Corticotropin releasing hormone - causes Anterior pituitary to produce adrenocorticotropic hormone
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GnRH
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Gonadotropin releasing hormone - causes anterior pituitary to produce follicle stimulating hormone and Leutinizing hormone
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PRH
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Prolactin releasing hormone - Causes anterior pituitary to release prolactin
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GHIH
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Growth hormone inhibiting hormone - causes anterior pituitary to decrease release of growth hormone
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PIH
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Prolactin inhibiting hormone - causes anterior pituitary to decrease release of prolactin
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What hormones does the posterior pituitary secrete?
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ADH and Oxytocin
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ADH
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Antidiuretic Hormone - secreted by Posterior pituitary - retains water in body
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How is ADH regulated?
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Osmoreceptors - detect change in osmolality(concentration of electrolytes in water- mainly sodium) in hypothalamus
Baroreceptors - in large arteries and heart, sense BP, if BP decreases, then ADH is secreted |
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Oxytocin
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Released by posterior pituitary - stimulates mammary glands, uterine contractine, general sense of well being
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Hormone of the Anterior Pituitary (7)
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GH (somatotropin)
Thyriod stimulating hormone Adrenocorticotropin hormone Melanocyte stimulating hormone Luteinizing hormone Follicle stimulating hormone Prolactin |
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Growth hormone
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-AKA somatotropin
-Stimulates breakdown of fats to be used as energy, stimulates glycogen production -Glucose sparing -Promotes bone and cartilage growth |
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When is GH stimulated or inhibited
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Inhibited in response to high blodd glucose
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TSH
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TRH from hypothalamus causes release of TSH from anterior pituitary - causes secretion and storage of T3 and T4 from the thyroid
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Adrenocorticotropic hormone
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-CRH -> ACTH from anterior pituitary
-Causes cortisol and aldosterone secretion from adrenal cortex |
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Melanocyte stimulating hormone
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From anterior pituitary - causes melanocytes to produce more melanin
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LH, FSH
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Luetinizing and follicle stimulating hormones
-Regulate production of gametes |
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Prolactin
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Plays a roll in milk production - secreted from the anterior pituitary
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Thyroid Gland construction
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Made of follicle and parafollicular cells.
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Calcitonin
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Secreted by parafollicular cells in thyroid
Reduces Ca in blood by increasing activity of osteoclasts and inhibiting the activity of osteoblasts |
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Hyperthyroidism
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Lots of T3 and T4 - high BP, high metabolism, hot
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Hypothyroidism
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Low BP, Low metabolic rate, gain weight, cold intolerance
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Parathyroid gland hormone
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Secretes Parathyroid hormone
-Increases blood calcium, stimulates osteaclasts, inhibits osteablasts, increases calcium retention in kidneys |
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Where is the adrenal cortex?
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Outer portion of the adrenal gland
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Where is the adrenal medulla?
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inner portion of adrenal gland
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Hormones of the adrenal medulla
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-Epinephrine and norepinephrine
-Fight or flight - increases HR, BP, pulls blood from viscera to save it for skeletal muscles |
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Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex and functions
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Aldosterone (glomerulosa) - increases rate of sodium reabsorbtion in kidneys
Cortisol (fasciculota) - increases fat & protein breakdown, reduces number of WBCs Androgens (reticularis) - Converted to testosterone |
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Disorders of the adrenal gland
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Addison disease - low level of aldosterone - weakness and low BP
Cushing's syndrome - Hypersecretion of cortisol and aldosterone - fat tissue on face accumulation |
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Pancreas is special because
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It is both an endocrine and exocrine gland
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Endocrine portion of the Pancreas is made of?
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Alpha cells - secrete glucagon
Beta cells - secrete insulin Delta cells - secrete somatostatin |
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Insulin
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Release by pancreas just after meal,
Increases uptake of glucose by cells |
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Glucagon
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Released when blood glucose drops (4 hours after meal)
-Causes glycogen and fat breakdown in the liver for energy |
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Hormones of the testes
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Testosterone - regulates sperm production, secondary sex chars
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Hormones of the ovaries
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Estrogen and progesterone - uterine and mammary stuffs, menstrual cycle
Inhibin - inhibits FSH Relaxin - increases flexbility of the symphysis pubis |
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Pineal body location and hormone
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Epithalamus - releases melatonin - regulates sleep/wake cycle
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Thymus gland hormone
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Produces thymosin - regulates development of immune system. Thymus shrinks as we age
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GI Tract hormones
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Several - regulate digestion and enzyme secretion
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Blood is what class of tissue?
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Connective
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Blood composition
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• Type of connective tissue, consisting of cells and cell fragments surround by liquid matrix (plasma)
• Formed elements make up 45% of total blood volume, plasma makes up 55% |
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Functions of Blood
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• Transportofgases,nutrientsandwasteproducts;e.g. oxygen
• Transport of processed molecules; e.g., precursor of vitamin D from skin to liver then kidneys • Transport of regulatory molecules; e.g., hormones • RegulationofpHandosmosis(normalpHofmost body tissues between 7.35 and 7.45) • Maintenance of body temperature; e.g., warm blood shunted to the interior of the body • Protection against foreign substances; e.g., antibodies • Clotformation |
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Discuss plasma proteins
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• Proteins:
– Albumins: viscosity, osmotic pressure, buffer, transports fatty acids, free bilirubin, thyroid hormones – Globulins: transports lipids, carbohydrates, hormones, ions, antibodies, and complement – Fibrinogen: blood clotting |
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3 formed elements of blood
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Red blood cells (erythrocytes). • White blood cells (leukocytes)
• Platelets (thrombocytes). Cell fragment. |
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Types of WBCs
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neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes and monocytes
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Define Hematopoiesis
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Process of blood cell production
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Types of stem cells, and what they develop into
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Proerythroblasts: Develop into red blood cells
– Myeloblasts: Develop into basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils – Lymphoblasts: Develop into lymphocytes – Monoblasts: Develop into monocytes – Megakaryoblasts: Develop into platelets |
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Life span of red blood cell
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120 days
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EPO Hormone
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Erythropoietin, stimulates RBC formation, secreted by the kidney
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Discuss Neutrophils
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• Nucleus has 2-5 lobes.
• Usually remain in circulation for 10-12 hr and then move into tissues for phagocytosis • They secrete lysozyme which kills certain bacteria • They survive 1-2 days after leaving the blood |
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Discuss Basophil
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• Least common 0.5-1.0 % of all WBC’s
• Contain large granules, stain blue or purple • Leave circulation and migrate through tissues • Promote inflammation, produce histamine and heparin. • Increase in number in both allergic and inflammatory reactions |
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Discuss Eosinophils
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• Make up 2-4 % of all WBC’s
• They contain cytoplasmic granules that stain bright red • Have 2 big lobes • They leave the blood to enter tissues during inflammatory reaction to reduce inflammation • They release toxic chemicals that attack parasitic worms, such as tapeworms, hookworms |
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Discuss Lymphocytes
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• Account for 20-25% of the WBC
• Produced in red bone marrow but then migrate to lymphatic tissues and proliferate. • Are responsible for providing immunity |
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Discuss Monocytes
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• Make up 3-8 % of all WBC’s, largest type of WBC
• Remain in blood for three days then enter into tissues where they become macrophages • They release chemicals to stimulated chemotaxis • They have the ability to present foreign antigens to lymphocytes |
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3 kinds of WBC movement
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– Ameboid: pseudopods
– Diapedesis: cells become thin, elongate and move either between or through endothelial cells of capillaries – Chemotaxis: attraction to and movement toward foreign materials or damaged cells. Accumulation of dead white cells and bacteria is pus. |
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Discuss platelets
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• Cellfragmentspinchedofffrom megakaryocytes in red bone marrow
• Surfaceglycoproteinsandproteins allow adhesion to other molecules; i.e., collagen • Important in preventing blood loss – Platelet plugs – Promoting formation and contraction of clots |
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Discuss Hemostasis
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• The process of stop bleeding; important in maintaining homeostasis
– Vascular spasm: Vasoconstriction of damaged blood vessels. – Platelet plug formation: – Coagulation or blood clotting |
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What kind of protein is responsible for clot dissolution?
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plasmin, an enzyme which hydrolyzes fibrin
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Blood Types (ABO Blood Groups)
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• Antigens that determine blood type: A,B, and Rh
Type A: RBC’s have A antigen Type B: RBC’s have B antigens Type AB: RBC’s have both A and B antigen Type O: RBC have neither A nor B antigens |
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Types of antibodies in blood against other blood types
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• Type A: Plasma has anti-B antibodies
• Type B: Plasma has anti-A antibodies • Type AB: Plasma has neither anti-A nor Anti-B antibodies • Type O: Plasma has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies. |
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Discuss Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)
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– Rh positive fetus,Rh negative mother.
-Second pregnancy mother may attack the fetal RBCs |
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Hemoglobin Measurement:
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For a male, 14-18, female 12-16 g/100 mL
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Hematocrit Measurement
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percent of blood that is RBCs, Males: 40-54% and females: 38-47%
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Differential White Blood Count
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determines percentage of each of the five types of WBC
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