Sphincter

Pharmacology- Practical based exercise Introduction/ aims Acetylcholine (ACH) is a neurotransmitter which operate in the brain, ACH are known as cholinergic because they are released from both the parasympathetic and sympathetic systems, (Colovic, 2013). There are drugs which look to copy these effects or inhibit them, they are known as cholinergic drugs. ACH has two types of receptors, nicotinic and muscarinic receptors. Nicotine acts as antagonists for nicotinic receptors, by blocking these…

The urinary system is not something you think about until you have had that second or third glass of water or you wake in the middle of the night and stumble through the house to the bathroom. The urinary system starts with the kidneys which filter blood and produces urine. Urine then carried by what is called ureters which are two tubes that carry the urine to the bladder. The urine can be stored in the bladder until it becomes full in which case it then sends signals to the brain telling you…

1) List at least three ways in which rats are similar to humans. a) Rats, just as humans, give birth to living young. b) It has been shown that rats and humans can contract the same diseases. c) We have similar anatomy 2) Describe a rat 's foot structure and for what it might be useful. How is this similar to a human’s foot? How is this different from humans? Rats have two hind feet with five toes, and on each toe is a sharp nail. Its hind feet are significantly larger than it’s front…

The exposure to reflux material can be enhanced when the normal lower esophageal sphincter (LES) pressure is altered by drugs, diaphragmatic ligaments (hiatal hernia), and abdominal pressure (pregnancy and obesity). Normally, swallowing initiates peristalsis that results in relaxation of the LES. When GERD is present, the LES relaxes independently…

SUBJECTIVE CC: “I’ve had a headache for 3 weeks, and it’s still there.” HPI: 40 year old single college Professor with complaints of daily headache for 3 weeks. She describes the headache as dull to pounding at times, from 3 to 8 on scale of 1-10 (10 being worst pain). The pain has not gotten worse, but has not gotten better either. She has no previous medical history or history of headaches or migraine headaches. Her head hurts “in the back of head and goes to the top”, and is occasionally…

1. The pinna or auricle directs sound waves into the auditory canal. The eardrum vibrates according to frequency. Vibration transmitted to malleus then incus and then stapes of the middle ear. When the stapes vibrate, the membrane of the oval window is pushed in and out. This created the fluid pressure in the perilymph. Pressure waves enter the Scala vestibule then Scala tympani and then round window. This is where the walls become deformed in Scala vestibule and Scala tympani. Pressure…

Background information Structure of the large intestine The large intestine (also known as large bowel or colon) is the last part of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. It extends from the cecum to the anus, with the ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending colon, the sigmoid colon and the rectum in between. The large intestine consists of four layers of tissue: the mucosa, submucosa, muscle and serosa (figure 1). The mucosa is made out of an epithelial layer, with a layer of…

Gastrointestinal disorders (GI) refers to diseases that involve the gastrointestinal tract. This is made up of the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and the rectum. There are a variety of different GI disorders but the most common are: Gastroeophagel Reflux Disease (GERD), Inflammatory Bowel Disorder (IBD) and Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders (FGIDs). Functional gastrointestinal disorders are common disorders that can be seen in any segment of gastrointestinal tract.…

The Renal System, which is also known as the Urinary System, is made up of the kidneys, urinary bladder, urethra and ureters. The kidneys play an important role in the Renal System; they filter the blood in order to eliminate waste and produce urine, maintain the body’s fluid balance, make hormones as well as balances the levels of some of the chemicals in the blood. The urinary bladder, urethra and the ureters together make up the urinary tract. The urinary tract acts as a drainage system…

I stopped on the side of the road and fought a life and death battle against the urge to purge. Sweat poured from every pore and my stomach lurched violently. Now I was positive I was not right. I clenched my butt cheeks together, tightened my sphincter and walked as fast as possible. I looked like a speed walker with a telephone pole jammed up his rear. I no longer cared about how I looked though; I needed relief and needed it…