Quantum field theory

In 1839, a French physicist Edmund Becquerel proposed that few materials have the ability to produce electricity when exposed to sunlight. But Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect and the nature of light in 1905. Photoelectric effect state that when photons or sunlight strikes to a metal surface flow of electrons will take place. Later photoelectric effect became the basic principle for the technology of photovoltaic power generation. The first PV module was manufactured by Bell…

LINEAR WAVE THEORY Linear wave theory can be defined as first-order, small amplitude gravity wave with a sinusoidal shape. This theory has been developed by Airy in 1845. It is easy to apply and give reasonable approximation of wave characteristic for a wide range of wave parameters. However, in some situations, waves are better described by higher order theories or also referred as finite-amplitude wave theories. Although there are limitations to its application, linear theory is still useful…

In the organic disordered materials, the charge transport is occurred by variable range hopping (VRH) of charge carriers between strongly localized states [22-25, 30, 58-61]. The VRH model proposed by Vissenberg and Matters model that considers the hopping percolation of thermally activated carriers between localized states is the most model used for describing charge transport in the disordered organic semiconductors and modeling the electrical characteristics OTFTs [27, 58]. Indeed, the…

Superfluid helium or He II is a macroscopic quantum fluid that exhibits extraordinary properties. %By applying the limit of low flow velocities, The behavior of the fluid can be understood using a Landau - Tisza model, where He II is considered to be a two-component fluid with independent velocity fields: the inviscid superfluid of density $\rho_s$, and the normal fluid of density $\rho_n$, where the total density $\rho$ = $\rho_s$ + $\rho_n$ \cite{Tisza,Landau}. The superfluid has neither…

Types of Spectroscopy used in Organic Chemistry 1.1 Introduction Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and light (electromagnetic radiation) (Crouch & Skoog, 2007). It is often phrased as the light of knowledge (Reusch, 2013). In the past, spectroscopy started by the study of visible light dispersed according to its wavelength by a prism (Anon., n.d.). Now, with the knowledge of light having both wave-like and particle-like characteristics, with given frequency or…

New development leads to changes in experimental methods. J.J. Thomson contradicted Dalton’s atomic theory by using a cathode ray tube. Thomson was born in 1856 and the cathode ray tube was invented in 1897; almost the same time during his years. He took a positive magnetic source near the rays and found the rays deflect to the positive and repel when…

Critical assessment of the article: Quantitative analysis by Auger Electron Spectroscopy 1 Introduction When the outer electron fills the vacancy left by an ionized electron in the inner shell, the released energy can be passed to another outer electron that causes further emitting of an electron with characteristic energy, this is the basic principle of the Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) [1]. Nowadays, AES is almost an indispensable tool in nanoscience research for its high surface…

(corner points) minus the Number of Edges always equals 2” (mathsisfun.com). In conclusion, Leonhard Euler was one of math's most preeminent thinkers because of what he contributed to many areas of the math world today. He helped contribute to the field of geometry, trigonometry, and calculus (biography.com). During his lifetime, he wrote many books and articles that dealt with math. He help people used math in a lot of areas today like shipbuilding, geodesy, astronomy, ballistics, optics and…

to find what exactly determines the present. The common objection for presentism is by the use of the Special Theory of Relativity, or more specifically the relativity of simultaneity. The Special Theory of Relativity is a well confirmed physical theory of the measurement of non-accelerating frames of reference in all inertial systems proposed by Albert Einstein. The basics of the theory is that in a vacuum the speed of light will be the same for each and all of the observers, regardless of the…

James Chadwick, 82, of Bollington, England, passed away on July 24 while living in Cambridge, England. He died in his sleep of an unknown cause. Chadwick was a very important figure in history, having discovered the neutron in 1932. Chadwick was the son of John Joseph Chadwick, a railway storekeeper, and Anne Mary Knowles, a domestic servant. At a young age of 11, Chadwick won an entry to grammar school. He had two brothers, Hubert and Harry Knowles, along with two twin daughters whom he left…