Hypothalamus

INTRODUCTION Around the world, millions of children are experiencing loss and abuse, and its effects. Experiencing loss and abuse as a child are types of childhood trauma. Childhood trauma, according to the National Institute of Mental health is, “The experiences of an event by a child that is emotionally painful or distressful, which often results in lasting mental and physical effects”[1]. Abuse and loss can lead to childhood trauma depending on how influential they are as well as how well…

It is now well established that the brain and the gut are engaged in constant bi-directional communication. Most individuals are made aware of such communication when alteration in gastrointestinal function is communicated to the brain bringing about the perception of visceral events such as nausea, satiety, and pain or when, in turn, stressful experiences lead to altered gastrointestinal secretions and motility. The mechanisms which allow communication between the central nervous system (CNS)…

1. The thyroid gland secretes thyroxine also known as T4 which maintains metabolic rate of all cells and processes of cell growth and tissue differentiation. 2. Calitonin is secreted by the thyroid gland and maintains calcium and phosphorus blood levels by inhibiting the transfer of calcium from bone to blood, increases calcium storage in bone, and increases renal exertion of calcium and phosphorus. 3. The parathyroid gland secretes parathyroid hormone or parahormone which regulates calcium…

Peer Assessment 2 Choose one out of paracrine signalling, endocrine signalling, autocrine signalling and direct signalling and describe brie y the process by which this occurs. The Endocrine signalling occurs over long distances in the body and the signal is sent through the blood. Firstly, the cell inside the pituitary gland sends hormones into the blood stream over a long distance and once it gets reaches to a cell with the right receptor, the hormones will attach themselves to the receptor…

Stress is a major problem in college students, however, it can be dealt with using a few simple tactics. According to a survey by the Associated Press and mtvU, four out of ten college students admit to feeling stressed often. One out of five say that they feel stressed most of the time. One of every four report experiencing stress on a daily basis, and one in ten admit that they have experienced thoughts of suicide. Stress is very common in college students and can be caused by factors such as…

Turner’s syndrome is a condition that results in a person only being born with one X chromosome. This condition is due to when someone is born with only one sex chromosome. Those who have Turner’s syndrome have one X-chromosome and are missing the other sex chromosome. Because there is the presence of an X chromosome only those with Turner’s syndrome are consider having the sex of female. This syndrome results in a vast variety of medical issues, but most issues that those who have this syndrome…

1. A salivary gland is stimulated by its parasympathetic nerve. a) Describe the organization of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a part of the peripheral nervous system that largely acts involuntarily. It consists of nerves in cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, exocrine and endocrine glands. The main visceral activities are temperature regulation, digestion, blood pressure and genitourinary function. The second main division of the…

Acetylcholine has two types of receptors: muscarinic and nicotinic, these receptors are functionally and structurally different. Nicotinic receptors are ionotropic, meaning that ions flow through it when acetylcholine binds to it. It acts as a channel for the ions that cross it, especially sodium, and this causes the depolarization of the cell. There are two types of nicotinic receptors formed by different subunits, N1 are found in the neuromuscular junctions allowing muscle movement, and N2 is…

ENDOCRINAL GLANDS Patients with anorexia nervosa have a number of abnormalities in endocrine function. Secretion rates of cortisol are generally elevated,and metabolic clearance rates are decreased, with the result that the half-life of cortisol may be prolonged in malnourished individuals. The clinical significance of this elevated cortisol level is unknown, but it may be involved with loss of bone density in anorexia nervosa(Lo Sauro et al., 2008). Alterations in growth hormone are also…

Log concentration-response curve to carbachol in the absence or presence of a series of concentrations of antagonist were showed on Figure 1. The log concentration-response curve has a characteristic sigmoidal shape. The addition of higher concentration of antagonist into the organ bath made the curves gradually shift to the right in a nearly parallel manner (Fig 1). The higher concentration of Atropine, the more its curve moved to the right of the graph. However, these effects of antagonist did…