Endoplasmic reticulum

two sister chromatids connected by the centromere. The spindle begins to form and my nuclear envelope breaks down. In animal cells only the centrioles are replicated. Microtubules arrange around them in an arrangement called an aster. The endoplasmic reticulum also breaks down in prophase. That’s all for prophase, and next is prometaphase. In prometaphase the chromosomes that were condensed in prophase attach themselves to the spindle by kinetochores. The kinetochores are attached at the…

Calcium ions are vital for cellular signalling, as once they enter the cytoplasm they use allosteric effects caused by indirect transduction pathways such as G protein-coupled receptors. Calcium signalling is cause by gradients across the plasma membrane, as the resting concentration of Ca2+ in the cytoplasm is normally kept ˷100 nM, compared to the extracellular concentration which is ˷1.5mM. To continue low concentration within the cell, Ca2+ signals can be generated either from extracellular…

There are two main types’ of cells. These are prokaryotic (see diagram 1) and Eukaryotic. ( See diagram 2). Prokaryotic cells are the cells of microorganisms such as Bacteria and Achaea. Eukaryotic cells are basically cells that make all other living things such as humans and animals. You can identify the difference between these cells by their structure they both have a number of features in common but all so lots of differences. The eukaryotic cell has a membrane enclosed organelle called…

translation is paused due to a protein (signal recognition particle) in the cytoplasm. This signal recognition particle (SRP) binds to a signal sequence at the end of the prepoinsulin that will bind to signal recognition particle receptor in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Once joined to the SRP receptor, the signal sequence is transferred to the translocon (lipid bilayer of the ER that helps proteins get through the ER from the cytoplasm). The ribosome will continue the translation and fully…

This retrospective histological and immunohistochemical study was designed to evaluate the pathogenesis of pancreatic toxicity induced by patulin exposure and the role of goji extract to eliminate its toxicity. It has been reported that the relationship of the endocrine–exocrine parts of the pancreas is a complex one because of the close anatomical and functional links. The impairment of the endocrine part of the pancreas has a marked effect upon its exocrine component. It was stated that islet…

Past: The Golgi-Apparatus was first discovered by the Italian physician, after which it was named, Camillo Golgi in the year 1897 (but only reported the discovery in 1898), and it appeared in scientific literature for the first time in 1910, but its existence was only proved later in the year 1954 with the help of electron-microscopic studies. Camillo Golgi was able to identify this organelle by using a special staining technique, which he called ‘Black Reaction’, which made it possible to…

Muckle-Wells syndrome (MWS) is a rare genetic disorder that causes hive-like skin rashes, chills, fever, partial or total hearing loss, swollen joints, loss of kidney function, and can eventually lead to amyloidosis in some patients. Muckle-Wells syndrome is named after Thomas J. Muckle and Michael V. Wells who first described the disease in April of 1962 [1]. Muckle-Wells is in a family of diseases called Cryopyrin-Associated Autoinflammatory Syndromes (CAPS) which all are related because they…

How glucose levels are re-established when a disruption in the system by internal influences are made. An example of an internal influence that disrupts the negative feedback system of blood glucose regulation is diabetes. Diabetes is a disease in which the body is not able to absorb enough glucose into cells or does not get converted into glycogen, either because of the lack of insulin in the body or because the body does not respond to the insulin properly. Because the negative feedback…

Summary: All biological molecules contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. A carbohydrate (C,H,O) is a biological molecule consisting of hydrogen , carbon, and oxygen atoms exclusively. They are the building blocks for polysaccharides, larger more complex carbohydrates. An example of a carbohydrate is glucose (the energy source for plants). Carbohydrates are the source of short term energy in organisms. Proteins (C,H,O,N) are made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen on a base level. Proteins…

Vaccination is the process of injecting antigenic material to stimulate immune response. Conventional vaccines insert attenuated or killed infectious agent, such as virus or antigenic protein, into the body to stimulate immune system to develop immunity against the pathogen. However, this type of vaccines has some weakness. For example, attenuated virus may suddenly become very active in the body and cause disease instead of stimulating immune response. Conventional vaccines also unable to…