Brainstem

components of the system include the ARC (arcuate nucleus), PVN (paraventricular nucleus), LHA (lateral hypothalamus area), VMN (ventral medial nucleus), and DMV (dorsalmedial nucleus) at the hypothalamus; the NTS (nucleus tractus solitarii) at the brainstem; the NAcc (nucleus accumbens) and amygdala in the prefrontal cortex; and the cortex. (B) The major appetite signal reception and integration occur in the hypothalamus. In the ARC, the NPY/AgRP neuron (green) produces NPY and AgRP while the…

Patients with sleep apnea, a sleep disorder characterized by intermittent episodes of hypoxia (CIH), are at an increased risk for cardiovascular problems. CIH leads to a long lasting augmentation of respiratory and sympathetic motor output after the cessation of CIH, a phenomena termed long-term facilitation (LTF). LTF is a serotonin dependent mechanism. Additionally, serotonergic neurons in the raphe nuclei receive dense projections from orexin (OX) neurons; thus OX may contribute to the…

3.4 Radiological manifestations: In our study, radiological examination showed that diffuse brain damage and brainstem injuries were present in 34 (51.5%) and 23 (34.9%) patients, respectively, and it was associated with increased mortality rate. 3.4.1 Computerized tomography (CT) scan: Different types of imaging studies are used in TBI patients due to missile wounds. In a hemodynamically stable patient, non-contrast enhanced CT scan is the preferred imaging modality.4-7,13,14,19, 20, 23,…

The brain has two important motor pathways. These pathways are the motor cortex and the somatosensory cotex (Carlson & Birkett, 2017). The motor cortex of the brain is made up of the outer grey matter. Each side of the cortex has areas that represent particular regions of our body. Signals from these areas will travel to the particular areas of the body to preform specific movements. The thalamus is a structure that is very important in movement, as it is the relay station. The motor…

Fear is by far the most driving force behind the evolution of humanity and of all other species. Fear is the single strongest force behind humanity and its survival because fear is what stops people from doing something that could harm or kill them. Fear is the most powerful chemical reaction in the brain, requiring more chemicals and less time to register then thoughts or memories and lasting much longer. Fear affects everyone in some way, and some much more cripplingly then others. Fear has…

opioid use, which increases their sensitivity to pain” (Inaba 4.14). The next effect that I am going to talk about is, how opioids can control coughing. It is known to control coughing by “Suppressing coughs desensitizing the cough center in the brainstem.”…

All neonates passed an automated auditory brainstem response (AABR) test and a transient evoked otoacoustic emission test (TEOAE), which showed that the neonates had no hearing loss. After the newborns passed the AABR test, they were tested using TEOAEs and HFT in a non-sound-treated room. Ambient…

Neurofibromatosis Neurofibromatosis is a genetic disorder that causes tumors to develop on nervous tissue located in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. “Genetics disorders are diseases that are received through an individual having an abnormality in DNA”(Genetic Science Learning Center, 2014). These irregularities range from single-base mutations on just one chromosome all the way up to receiving or removing an entire chromosome. In the case of neurofibromatosis, it is caused by an anomaly in…

In the world today, there are about 5000 languages spoken. Where the languages originated from is the unknown factor that the humans have been studying for the past two centuries. Experts have linked the similarity of languages by the shared words, sounds, or grammatical constructions. There are specific names classified for people who speak a certain number of languages. People who speak one language are termed monolinguals. People who speak two languages fluently are termed bilinguals. People…

or N0-Go are regulated by the process of dis-inhibition or inhibition respectively(6). The activation pattern of these minicolumns differs according to the stage of learning(6). During the process of learning networks across the B.G, cerebellum, brainstem, spinal center and cortex are facilitated by the sensorimotor system(6). In the early stage, the activation is widespread, slow and feedback dependent. Later with practice, the pattern of activation is consolidated, fast, and efficient with…