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The SEM produces a largely magnified image by using electrons instead of light to form an image. A beam of electrons is produced at the top of the microscope by an electron gun. It consists of an electron gun to produce high energy electron beam. A magnetic condensing lens is used to condense the electron beam and a scanning coil is arranged in-between magnetic condensing lens and the sample. The electron detector (Scintillator) is used to collect the secondary electrons and can be converted…

Photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS) is a tool to study thermal emission resulting from non-radiative relaxation followed by absorption of radiation. PAS was studied primarily by Alexander Graham Bell, John Tyndall, Wilhelm Rontgen and Lord Rayleigh in 1884. For the history of PAS, was not until 1975 that photoacoustic spectroscopy started to be used as a wide range of different applications. This technique provides the following main advantages over the known types of spectroscopy. The advantages…

Brønsted–Lowry Left hand side: Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted (1879 - 1947) Right hand side: Thomas Martin Lowry (1874 - 1936) THEORY An acid is a proton (H+) donor A base is a proton (H+) acceptor EXPLANATION OF THE THEORY: Acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors. A hydrogen ion is the same thing as a proton since hydrogen consists of a proton and an electron. When hydrogen loses an electron all that is left is a proton. According to the Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and…

Jean de Dieu Kamiri Professor Steven Phil 1301 02/08/2018 Title: Thales vs. Homer Abstract: Thales is the Greek philosopher, he is the first person to investigate the basic principles, the question of the substance of matter, and he foundered the school of natural philosophy. He is in among seven sages of Greece. He did research almost all areas of knowledge, mathematics, politics, history, science, engineering, and philosophy. He suggested concepts to explain many of the events of nature, the…

Electromagnetic waves are a type of radiation that is produced from electrons (negatively charged particles) and x-rays is a type of electromagnetic wave. The shorter the wavelength of a wave, the more energy the wave emits. Gamma radiation has the shortest wavelength amongst all the other electromagnetic waves and has the most energy. It cannot be seen or felt and can pass through almost anything. X-rays have slightly longer wavelengths than Gamma rays and has the second most energy emission.…

Minoxidil, an antihypertensive vasodilator medication, which was developed in the 1950’s by a company called Upjohn originally used to treat ulcers. During their experiments with dogs, they figured out that it did not cure ulcers, but acted as a vasodilator. Due to this recent discovery, Upjohn was able to develop a compound called Minoxidil in 1963 as well as being able to synthesize over 200 variations of the compound. The molecular structure and compound of Minoxidil is C9H15N50, made…

2.1 New semi empirical formula for of mass attenuation and energy absorption coefficients Most of the tissues of human organs consisting of elements such as H, C, N, O ,Ca ,P, Na, Mg, S, CI ,K ,Fe and I in their elemental composition. We have studied the variation of mass attenuation and energy absorption coefficients with atomic number at different energies for the elements which are constitutes of tissues of human organs. It has been proposed the empirical relations for mass attenuation and…

Alchemy was the earliest understanding of today’s chemistry. These two display Is Alchemy Chemistry? different pathways of thinking and rationalising rather than two diverse concepts. The practice of alchemy is the basis of chemistry, as it was a vital role of origin and evolution towards chemistry we know today. The comprehension of both alchemy and chemistry will aid in order to establish their connections and difference of opinion or belief. Discovering both histories of the two concepts will…

1. Calcium is the fifth common element in the earth’s crust, and is found predominantly in feldspar, calcite, dolomite, and apatite, as a primary and secondary mineral. Calcium is found in lime stone but is also added as lime and in fertilizers. However, Calcium is not added as the soil is insufficient in Calcium, but to increase the pH. Calcium is a macro-nutrient which is essential in plant growth, the functioning of root tips, and is a main constituent in the cell wall. The amount of Calcium…

(1.1)[22] Where, MW1 and X1 are the molecular weight and mole fraction, respectively. Compound Chemical Composition Symbol (for calculations) Molecular Weight Critical Pressure (psi) Critical Temp. (R) Methane CH4 C1 16.04 673 344 iso-Butane C4H10 i-C4 58.12 530 733 n-Butane C4H10 n-C5 58.12 551 766 Propane C3H8 C3 44.09 618 666 Ethane C2H6 C2 30.07 709 550 n-Hexane C6H14 n-C8 86.17 434 915 n-Heptane C7H16 n-C9 100.2 397 973 iso-Pentane C5H12 i-C6 72.15 482 830 n-Pentane C5H12 n-C7 72.15 485 847…