Arthropod exoskeleton

Introduction More than ever before, the human population has been turning to the drug caffeine as a stimulant in our everyday lives. As the fastest growing component of the beverage industry, caffeinated substances such as energy drinks, shots, and other supplements are being consumed in noticeably greater quantities (Kumar et al. 2105). 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine is a chemical compound commonly known as caffeine. In humans, extremely high doses of caffeine can be considered a drug, but the normal…

Order Hymenoptera, the third-largest order of insects, comprises the sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants. Over 150,000 species are recognized (Janke 2), with many more remaining to be described. Many factors have led to this order’s success, through the development of wings, their immense range of behavioral adaptation, and namely: their highly complex ways of self-defense, mainly those of the biochemical and morphological nature. From the famous “cow-killer” to the range of stings of the Vespidae,…

(GlcNAc) units in a linear form. Chitin is insoluble in water and mainly exists in two crystalline (α- and β-) forms. The α-chitin consists of sheets of tightly packed alternating parallel and antiparallel chains (1) and is abundant in the exoskeleton of arthropods, insects, fungi, and yeast cell walls. The chains are arranged in parallel orientation in β-chitin (2), which occurs less frequently in nature and is often extracted from squid pens. The insolubility of chitin is a major limitation in…