Adaptive immune system

Introduction: Immunity is a complex system of study related to expelling pathogenic substances (viruses, bacteria, parasites) from the body. It is separated into two distinct categories: the innate immune system and the acquired immune system. The innate immune system is comprised of the body’s first line of defense which consist of physical barriers and certain cell types. The acquired immune system is more specific, actually focusing in on the individual pathogen in question. Focusing on…

of cytokines (inflammatory cytokines) in order to recruit other cells to the area of infection. These cytokines can do that by creating an inflammation in the area of infected tissue. 3. Most immune cells are excluded from entering healthy tissues. Why is this (usually) beneficial for an organism? Many immune cells are excluded from entering healthy tissues because healthy tissues do not need to be inflamed compared to infected tissues. For example, neutrophils, once they are called to the site…

The acute inflammatory response can be stimulated by an infection, tissue necrosis, foreign bodies, or immune reactions. The stimulus is recognized by receptors on the surface phagocytes, dendritic cells, and epithelial cells. The two types of the receptors are the toll like receptors and the inflammasomes. The toll like receptors recognize bacterial and virus DNA and endotoxins and in response produce inflammatory mediators. The inflammasome recognizes microbial or dead cell products or…

brain cells of blood-borne compounds and facilitates nutrients essential for normal metabolism to reach brain cells. This is a very tight regulation that results in the inability of small and large therapeutic compounds to cross the BBB. Lipidic systems can be considered to be the most promising carrier for drug delivery to the brain. Carbohydrates and amino acids are able to cross the BBB. P-glycoprotein plays a role in the protection of the organism against toxic xenobiotics (drug,…

Rejection cannot be completely prevented; however, a degree of immune tolerance to the transplant does develop. Several concepts have been postulated to explain the development of partial tolerance. They include clonal deletion and the development of anergy in donor specific lymphocytes, development of suppressor lymphocytes, or factors that down-regulate the immune response against the graft. Other hypotheses include the persistence of donor-derived dendritic cells in the recipient that promote…

that the earliest phases are marked by repeated activation of innate immunity Cigarette smoke, bacterial products, viral components, and other environmental stimuli can contribute to these responses. In individuals, a predetermined propensity for immune hyper-reactivity or autoreactivity might lead to a different outcome. The genome of these…

The immune system is a host defense mechanism that involves a complex collection of molecules, cells, and tissue. The primary function of the immune system is responsible for recognizing and differentiating between harmful and none harmful microbes in the human body. When a human is resistant to a certain disease, that human is known to be immune. The term used to describe an immune individual is referred to as immunity. The primary function of immunity is to become resistant to certain…

4.1.5.Cytokine and Chemokine in inflammation: Many multifunctional cytokines are present in exocytosis of mast cells which play important roles in late- phase inflammatory response. The mast cell is a source of cytokines such as IL-1, -2, -4, -5, -6, TNF-α (85). IL-1 functions to grow T-helper cells and B cells with its proliferation whereas IL-2 influences the proliferation of T lymphocytes and activation of B lymphocytes. IL-4 helps to differentiate B lymphocytes into plasma cells secret IgE.…

(humoral) against antigens, presented by pathogens. This can be categorised as either natural or acquired. The mode of natural methods was by direct contact with the pathogen and enduring the infection, leading to the antibody production by the immune system. This mode of immunity usually takes few days or weeks for initial response however lasts a lifelong. Along with antibody production, a memory of a portion of the antigen was also stored as memory B-cells both in bone marrow and also in…

on the NLRP3 (also called CIAS1) gene which is responsible for coding for the protein Cryopyrin. Cryopyrin is a type of protein which is called a nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat containing protein. A major part of the innate immune system is the inflammasome, which Cryopyrin is directly involved in the correct assembly of this molecule [6]. An inflammasome is the molecule that directs the process of inflammation in the body. Inflammation is the body’s way of signaling to…