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161 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the optimal coordinates for growing grapes? |
Between 30 and 50 degrees latitude. Closer to equator, summer and winter are poorly defined. Further away, summers are too cold to ripen crop, unless climate is extremely continental.
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What is climate?
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Indication of what weather to expect in a typical year.
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How does water affect the climate?
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Water heats up and cools down much slowly than land, so it has a moderating effect on temperature fluctuations.
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What is a maritime climate?
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Climate near large bodies of water. Warm summers and mild winters.
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What is a Mediterranean climate?
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A maritime climate where most of the rainfall occurs in winter.
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What is a Continental climate?
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Found when vineyard is in middle of substantial landmass. With extreme temperatures in winter and summer.
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What is the relationship between rivers and frosts?
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Vineyards close to rivers are less likely to suffer from frost damage as movement of water encourages air currents.
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What enables noble rot?
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Meeting of warm air and cold bodies of water. Or presence of shallow lakes.
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What affect can mountains have on the weather?
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Mountains may have rain shadow effect, protecting vineyards from rain. Or can be source of cold winds.
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What is the relationship between temperatures and altitude.
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Temperatures drop with increased altitude. Higher altitudes also give greater temperature differences between day and night.
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What is a regional climate?
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Overall climate for a particular region.
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What is a site climate?
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Climate of an individual vineyard site or part of a vineyard.
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What is a marginal climate?
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Climate that is only just suitable for viticulture, has risk of heavy rainfall at harvest, or susceptible to frost or hall.
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How do winter frosts affect the vine?
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May damage grafts and lead to the death of the vine.
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What is the mitigation against winter frosts?
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Earthing up.
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How do spring frosts affect the vine?
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Can cause damage to new buds.
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What are ways to protect against spring frosts?
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Smudge pots that create smoke to keep heat in. Wind machines to draw in warm air from above to keep temperature at ground level above freezing point. Aspersion system by installing sprinklers that spray vines with water so that coat of ice protects shoots.
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How does drought affect the vine?
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High temperatures and insufficient rainfall can slow photosynthesis and can increase speed at which plant uses sugars. Less sugar left for the grapes. Since sugar is building blocks of tannins and aroma compounds, grapes will be unpleasant and unripe.
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How does excessive rain affect the vine?
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Dilution of sugars and flavors in grapes and can encourage development of rot.
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What is coulure?
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When non-fertilized blossom is shed.
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What is millerandage?
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Appearance of small, seedless grapes within a bunch. Sign of unsatisfactory pollination.
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What characteristics of soil can affect the vine?
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Water and heat retention and presence of chemical compounds such as nutrients and minerals.
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What are some negative affects of irrigation?
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Irrigation stops vines developing deep root systems and may distort terroir.
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What is the relationship between the amount of nutrients in soil and quality?
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Better grapes come from a vine that is slightly stressed, as stress causes vine to focus on producing fruit. Very fertile soils can result in lush, leafy vines that yield poor quality, unripe fruit.
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What affect does lime have on soils?
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Have good drainage properties.
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How do minerals affect the vine?
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Balance of minerals can help preserve acids in ripening grapes.
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What is chlorosis?
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Symptom caused by either having excess heat, transpiration, or lack of water or free iron in soil. Leaves turn yellow and yields fall because of reduced photosynthesis.
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How is chlorosis prevented?
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Selection of rootstock for new vines. Ferrous sulfate for established vineyards.
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What is topography?
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Steepness of vineyard and direction it faces.
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How can slopes affect vines?
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Slopes can expose vines to sun. Vineyards on slopes are generally better drained and have more air circulation.
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What is terroir?
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Natural influences that give a wine a sense of place.
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What is included in terroir?
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Soil structures, slope, regional climate, and site climate.
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What is the conflict between terroir and winemaking?
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Many wine characteristics that would have shown terroir are aspects of wine making. Include grape variety, use of oak, malolactic fermentation, less stirring. Danger that when techniques and expertise are shared throughout world, international styles emerge and diversity is lost.
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What factors are considered when a vineyard is planted?
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Legislation, yield, degree of mechanism during growing season and harvest, density of planting.
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What affect does density of planting have?
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More dense the planting, the more stress on the vine. Will lead to better fruit.
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What are the parts of the vine?
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Roots. Trunk and cordons. Spurs and canes. Shoots. Nodes and buds. Flowers and berries. Leaves and tendrils.
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What are canes?
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One year old wood on a vine that has between eight and 15 buds.
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What is a spur?
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Cane that is pruned short leaving two or three buds.
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What is the purpose of winter pruning?
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Determine number and location of buds, managing the yield.
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What are the types of winter pruning?
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Replacement cane pruning. Spur pruning.
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What is replacement cane pruning?
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One long can with up to 15 buds is kept. Minimizes amount of permanent wood and restrict vigor of the vine.
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What is spur pruning?
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A larger number of short spurs are retained. Distributed along permanent cordon of old wood. Vines with large amount of permanent wood tend to be more vigorous than replacement can pruned vines.
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What is the purpose of summer pruning?
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Trim canopy to restrict vegetative growth and direct sugar production to grape. Control leaf canopy so can help minimize spread of fungal infections.
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What is training?
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Arranging the canes in space.
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What is trellising?
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Framework to attach shoots to.
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What is the purpose of training and trellising?
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Affects amount of sunlight that is intercepted by leaves and location and exposure of fruit.
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What are the groupings for training and trellising systems?
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Bush Trained. Vertical Shoot Positioning. Big Vines.
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What is bush trained?
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Permanent wood is a vertical stump which has spurs distributed around head of vine. Shoots often untrellised and sprawl across ground. Often used in hot, dry regions. In cool, wet regions, canopy may restrict airflow and shade would inhibit ripening.
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What is VSP?
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Used with replacement cane or cordon spur pruning. Cane is trained horizontally. Shoots grow vertically and are held in place by a trellis. Cane may be low trained (to benefit from heat) or high trained (to avoid frosts). Very high planting densities.
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What is Big Vines?
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Soils are rich or high yields are desired. Low planting density. Large volume of permanent wood and large numbers of buds and fruiting shoots. Example is pergola. Usually spur pruned but still can use replacement-cane.
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What are the problems of having excessive yields?
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May result in grapes failing to ripen properly. Sugars produced in leaves are shared between too many grapes.
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What factors determine yields?
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Number of vines, number of buds, number of shoots, number of clusters, number of berries to cluster, weight of the berries, green harvesting.
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Name some vineyard pests.
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Phylloxera, Grape Moths, Spider Mites, Nematodes, Birds and Animals
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What do Grape Moths do?
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Caterpillars attack buds in spring and grapes themselves.
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What is the treatment against Grape Moths?
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Spraying vines with insecticides.
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What do Spider Mites do?
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Infest leaves and lessen vegetative growth.
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What is the treatment against Spider Mites?
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Specialist sprays or natural predators.
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What do Nematodes do?
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Attack roots of vines.
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What is the treatment against Nematodes?
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Planting using resistant root stock. Increasing use of drip irrigation. Planting using grafted vines.
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What are some diseases that affect the vine?
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Powdery mildew, downy mildew, rot, fungal diseases, bacterial disease (Pierce's Disease), viruses
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What is Powdery Mildew?
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Fungal disease that develops on all green parts of the vine as a white powdery growth of spores.
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What is the treatment against Powdery Mildew?
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Spray or dust with sulphur.
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What is Downy Mildew?
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Can attack all green parts of the vine, leaving growth of fungus. May cause leaves to drop, stopping photosynthesis and preventing sugars being concentrated.
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What is the treatment against Downy Mildew?
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Bordeaux mixture (copper sulphate and lime) or fungicides.
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What is grey rot?
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Causes loss of color in wine and because maceration on rotten skins can lead to off flavors, so black grapes more affected. Grey rot affects immature berries.
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What is the treatment against grey rot?
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Early treatment by spraying before grapes ripen.
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What is black rot?
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Affects both leaves and grapes.
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What is the treatment against black rot?
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Spraying with Bordeaux mixture.
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What is Pierce's Disease?
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Bacterial disease spread by sharpshooters.
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What is the treatment against Pierce's Disease?
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Surrounding vineyard with a cordon sanitaire.
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How do viruses affect the vine?
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Can reduce yield and quality.
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What is the treatment against viruses?
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Must grub up and sanitize the land. Plant virus and nematode-free land with virus-free cuttings.
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Vineyard in Oct
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Clear land. Uproot unproductive vines. Vine leaves change color and will fall with first frosts.
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Vineyard in Nov
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Plowing. Pruning. Base of vine earthed up to protect graft against frost. Vine is dormant.
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Vineyard in Dec
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Plowing. Pruning. Base of vine earthed up to protect graft against frost. Vine is dormant.
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Vineyard in Jan
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Main pruning.
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Vineyard in Feb
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Main pruning.
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Vineyard in Mar
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Pruning completed. Fertilizer spread. Signs of new growth. Grafting.
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Vineyard in Apr
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Loosen up earth around vines. Trellising. Spreading of herbicide. Planting of young vines.
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Vineyard in May
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Spraying against insects and fungal diseases. Distinct growth of shoots. First leaves form and cane matures. Plant newly grafted vines.
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Vineyard in Jun
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Trellising. Flowering. Fruit set. Spraying.
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Vineyard in Jul
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Trellising. Tips of vine shoots trimmed. Excess bunches removed (green harvest). Spraying.
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Vineyard in Aug
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Spraying should be discontinued month before harvest. Some trimming done. Mainly for preparing press house and equipment. Verasion.
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Vineyard in Sep
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Test grapes for sugar and acidity. Tasted to follow development of flavors and character of acids and tannin.
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What determines when the vintage begins?
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Begins when grapes have achieved maximum ripeness, as far as sugar content is concerned and also phenolic ripeness of pips. [Ideal balance of sugar and acidity]
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What are the advantages and disadvantages of machine harvesting?
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Speed. Can work through night so cool grapes can be brought to the winery. Are not selective. Can only be used on dry, flat or gently sloping land.
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What are the advantages and disadvantages of manual harvesting?
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Slower and more labor intensive. Permit selection of grapes. Less damage occurs when grapes are harvested by bunch and stalks can be left to add tannin. Prevents broken grapes which in turn prevents oxidation. Can be done in all terrains and in all weathers.
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What are the parts of the grape?
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Water, sugar, juice, skins, pips, stalks. All coloring material is in the skin with has some flavoring compounds and tannins.
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What are the facts considered when ripeness of a harvest is assessed?
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Phenolic ripeness and sugar ripeness.
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What is phenolic ripeness?
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Includes skins and pips.
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How is sugar ripeness judged?
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Amount of sugar in grapes. As grapes ripen, density of juice increases, so can get a rough idea of potential alcohol.
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What is must weight?
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Juice's density.
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What is the relationship between grape sugar and potential alcohol?
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Red wine fermented at higher temperatures. Less grape sugar needed for same strength of white wine than for red.
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What is acetobacter?
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Wild yeasts on outside of grape skin. Will turn wine into vinegar in presence of oxygen.
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What is the advantage of cultured yeasts?
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Fermentation results are more predictable.
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Discuss crushing.
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Breaks skins of grapes and allows juice to run out. Stalks generally removed, but may damage structure of grape. When white wine is being made from black grapes, bunches left in tact.
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Discuss pressing.
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Separation of liquid and solid parts of the grape. With white wines, pressing occurs before fermentation; red and rose have pressing after contact between juice and skins.
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What are different types of presses?
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Traditionally used vertical presses with pressure on grapes coming from above. More to horizontal presses. Degree of pressure can be more accurately controlled and is more gradual and gentle. Amount of juice that can be extracted varies according to variety and depends on the pressing pressure.
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What adjustments may be made before or after fermentation?
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Chaptalization, addition of sulphur dioxide, acidification, de-acidification.
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What is chaptalization?
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Addition of sugar to the must before or after fermentation to increase end degree of alcohol.
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Discuss the role of sulphur dioxide.
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Anti-oxidant and antiseptic. Kill of wild yeasts before fermentation is started with cultivated yeasts to minimize risk of off-flavors. Also prevents oxidization after fermentation or can kill off remaining yeasts or bacteria.
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Discuss acidification.
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Addition of tartaric acid in powder form.
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Discuss de-acidification.
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Common in cooler climate regions by neutralizing excess acid by adding potassium bicarbonate.
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How can you increase tannins?
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Addition of powder or by adding stalks to the vat. Or by maturation in oak casks.
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What are lees?
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When yeasts die at the end of fermentation, sink to the bottom of the fermentation vessel and form sediment.
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What is fermentation?
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Conversion of sugar, by interaction of yeasts, into alcohol with carbon dioxide gas and heat given off.
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Why might fermentation stop?
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Filtration. Adding sulphur dioxide. If temperature becomes too high or low. Yeast runs out of nutrients.
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What is residual sugar?
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Any unfermented sugar remaining in the wine.
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What is total alcohol?
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Actual alcohol (ethanol in wine as percentage by volume) + Potential alcohol (residual sugar)
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What is the main difference between white and red wines when it comes to fermentation?
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Red wines have to be fermented at higher temperatures to extract the maximum amount of color from skins. Whites are fermented at lower temperatures to enhance fruit flavors and avoid loss of freshness.
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What are the main steps of red wine vinification?
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May be destalked > Crushed > Fermentation & Maceration > Pressing > Blending > Maturation > Bottling
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What is remontage?
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Drawing off wine from the bottom of the vat and pumping it up on to the top.
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What is foulage and pigeage?
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Breaking up and punching down the cap.
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What are rotary fermenters?
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Red wines are fermented in horizontal tanks that rotate, bringing juice in regular contact with the skins.
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What is the relationship between maceration time and color extraction?
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Color extraction occurs most rapidly at beginning of maceration and slows as it continues. Tannin is released more slowly so longer maceration is needs for wines that are expected to age long in the bottle.
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What is carbonic maceration?
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Complete bunches of uncrushed grapes with their stalks are placed in a vat under carbon dioxide. Fermentation begins within grapes themselves using own enzymes and without yeast. Grapes burst and normal fermentation takes place. Extract color but not tannin.
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What are the ways rose is made?
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Vin gris, abbreviated red wine vinification, saignee method.
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What is vin gris?
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Black grapes are pressed directly and juice is fermented.
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What is abbreviated red wine vinification?
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Crushed grapes macerated for one to three days before pale-colored juice is run off to continue its fermentation without skins.
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What is the saignee method?
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Grapes are destalked and lightly crushed (not pressed), vatted for 12 - 24 hours; the lesser the contact, the paler the color. Sometimes only a portion of the juice will be bled off.
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What are the main steps of white wine vinification?
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Crushed > Pressed on arrival at press-house (color and tannin not required) > Fermentation (juice only) > Blending > Maturation > Bottling
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How might sweet wines be made?
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May come from botrytised grapes. Drying processes. Grapes freezing on vine so that water can be removed. [Fermentation stops naturally when yeasts have converted as much sugar into alcohol that they can.] Fermenting must may be filtered before all sugar has been consumed. Sulphur dioxide can be used to kill off yeast. Can add unfermented grape juice (Sussreserve) after fermentation. Can also add concentrated must after fermentation. Yeast can be killed off by addition of alcohol.
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Discuss malolactic fermentation.
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Lactic bacteria convert tart malic acids into softer lactic acids. Necessary for red wines - may be encouraged by raising temperature of wine and by not adding sulphur dioxide. Softens wine and reduces acidity and may form new flavors such as butter and hazelnut. But pure fruit aromas may be lost and wine may be less refreshing. Can be avoided by storage at cool temperatures and by using sulphur dioxide.
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What is necessary for wines to mature?
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Wines must have high levels of tannin, acidity, alcohol and fruit that will develop its flavor.
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How might wine change during maturation?
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Maturation vessel may add tannins and toasty flavors. Development of caramel, coffee, and nut flavors (require presence of oxygen). Development of flavors in bottle (inert, oxygen-free environment).
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Discuss difference between American and French oak.
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French barrels are more expensive. Production involves splitting trunk of tree, labor intensive, and more wasteful of wood. American barrels give sweet, coconut flavors. French oak gives greater spectrum of flavors and tannins that help aging.
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Discuss difference between smaller and larger casks.
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Small casks present a larger ratio of wood surface.
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Discuss difference between old versus new oak.
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New wood adds aroma and flavor of oak (vanilla, smoky character). Affect lessens as cask gets older.
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What are some shortcuts to adding oak flavors?
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Oak chips added to the grapes. Inner-stave treatment (pole is put in fermentation vat with staves sticking out from it)
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What treatments may occur before bottling?
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Fining, Stablization, Filtration
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What is filtration?
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Removal of particles that are large enough to cause cloudiness.
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What is fining?
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Causes tiny molecules to coagulate into larger lumps that can sink to bottom of be removed by filtration. [Egg white, bentonite]
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What is casse?
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Chemical faults in wine that can cause haziness or a deposit plus off-flavors. Fining with bentonite can prevent this.
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What is tartrate?
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Crystals that form in the wine. Chemical instability. Can be prevented by chilling wines.
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Discuss oxidization.
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Occurs when wine attacked by oxygen. Can be counteracted by using sulfur dioxide before bottling and by ensuring wine not exposed to air.
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What is blue fining?
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Use of a poisonous substance to counteract against copper and iron casse.
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What problems do micro-organisms cause?
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Fermentation may start up again after bottling.
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What can prevent problems caused by micro-organisms?
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Addition of sulphur dioxide, using heat, filtration (during time of bottling).
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What is pasteurization?
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Mainly for red wines. Flash system. Heats wine to 95 degrees for a second or so.
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What is a depth filter?
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Removes all unwanted particles and solids.
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What is a surface (membrane) filter?
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For wines with residual sugar. Will remove both yeasts and bacteria. Since membranes are easily blocked so wine will previously have been passed through a plate filter to remove the larger particles.
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What is cold, sterile bottling?
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For wines that are low in alcohol or have some residual sugar. Complete sterilization of wine and filling equipment, bottles, and closures. At normal winery temperature.
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What is hot-bottling?
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For cheaper wines. Less gentle. Like pasteurization.
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What is the disadvantage of artificial corks?
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Offer insufficient protection against oxygen.
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What conditions are best for bottle aging?
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Cool, dark place with constant humidity. Bottles should be stored lying on their side, so that cork remains moist to provide optimum seal.
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What are alternatives to bottles?
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Plastic bottles and bags. Lighter - less transport costs. Collapse as wine is consumed avoiding space for air. But are slightly permeable and wine can degrade.
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What costs affect the price of raw grape material?
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Labor demands of vineyard, cost of labor and equipment, economies of scale, selection of grape material, yields, supply and demand.
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What factors can affect winemaking costs?
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Equipment costs, barrel costs, ageing.
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Discuss co-operatives.
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Enables winemaking facilities and perhaps marketing costs to be shared.
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Discuss merchants.
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Buys grapes and/or finished wine from growers or co-ops. Take advantage of economies of scale since they can source and supply larger quantities of wine.
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Discuss estates.
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Smaller-scale production can allow greater care to be taken at each stage. But have less options for blending to fill out deficiencies.
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What is the ex-cellars price?
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Cost of juice, packaging, bottle, closure, label, carton.
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What can affect the costs of packaging and distribution?
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Price of packaging, transport, labor cost and overhead, storage of wine, selling environment (more profit expected in restaurants than in shops).
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Discuss supply and demand dynamics.
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In many areas, maximum production is enforced by legislation on size of production area and permitted yields. If demand continues to increase, it cannot be matched by an increase in supply. Upward pressure on price.
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Discuss branding.
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Something that gives consumer some degree of guarantee of quality and/or style. Consumer may be prepared to pay a little extra, but needs to be familiar with brand and its expectations. Achieved through media promotion and encouraging sampling.
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What is a hybrid?
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Marriage between two different vine species. Achieved by artificial evolution.
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What is a crossing?
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Reproduction natural, when parents are different varieties of the same species.
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Describe cloning.
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Asexual process. Cuttings are taken from individual vines and allow it to grow into a new vine. Requires genetic instructions to be copied every time a new cell is created. Mutations can occur giving slightly different versions of a variety. May select clones with desired qualities for future propagation.
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What is phylloxera?
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Vine louse that is transported on plant material. Cause wounds while feeding on vine roots and allow bacteria and fungi to enter, leading to decay and disease of the vines.
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What is the solution to prevent phylloxera?
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Grafting. American vines form protective layers beneath the feeding wounds to prevent further damage.
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Describe grafting.
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Attach European scion to American rootstock. Can be done on young vines or by head-grafting (top of the vine to be removed and buds or cuttings of new variety to be grafted onto the plant).
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