Western Civilization: Rome

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Ancient Rome: Architecture

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Concrete: Made extensive use of concrete (a mix of cement and stonefragments Arch and barrel vault: From the Etruscans they took the arch and the barrel vault (a curved ceiling made up of a series of archese) Domes: By arranging arches in a circle, they constructed domes – an architectural feature that the Greeks did not use Pantheon – temple to all the gods (built in Rome between 118 and 128 ce): most impressive example of a domed building Forum: Roman public buildings were arranged around a “forum”, or square Basilicas: Roman law courts were housed inside large buildings known as {}, which later became the model for Christian churches Arch of Titus: Constructed massive edifices to celebrate their victories, such as the {}, constructed by the emperor Domitian (81-96 ce) to commemorate his brother’s conquest of Judea, or the: Arch of Constantine (built 312-315) Trajan’s Column: pillar carved with figures in relief was erected around 106-113 ce to commemorate the conquest of Dacia Colosseum: Used columns as supporting elements in their structures, but unlike the Greeks, frequently embedded the columns within the walls, as in the Colosseum, an amphitheater built between 72 to 80 ce for gladiatorial games Bathhouses: no Roman city was complete without bathhouses Aqueducts: Although famously associated with the Romans, aqueducts were devised much earlier in the Near East and Indian subcontinent, where peoples such as the Egyptians and Harappans built sophisticated irrigation systems. Roman-style aqueducts were used as early as the 7th century BC, when the Assyrians built a limestone aqueduct 30 feet (10 m) high and 900 feet (300 m) long to carry water across a valley to their capital city, Nineveh. The full length of the aqueduct ran for 50 miles (80 km). Much of the expertise of the Roman engineers was lost in the Dark Ages, and in Europe the construction of aqueducts largely ceased until the High Middle Ages. The Architecture of Ancient Rome adopted the external Greek architecture for their own purposes, which were so different from Greek buildings as to create a new architectural style. The two styles are often considered one body of classical architecture. Sometimes that approach is reproductive, and sometimes it hinders understanding by causing us to judge Roman buildings by Greek standards, particularly when we take a point of view limited to external appearance almost alone. Political propaganda demanded that these buildings should be made to impress as well as perform a public function. The Romans didn't feel restricted by Greek aesthetic axioms alone in order to achieve these objectives.

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Ancient Rome: Late Empire: Architecture & Christianity

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Ecclesiastical culture showed vitality in the realm of architecture – for the first 300 years, when Christianity was an underground religion, it was practiced either in catacombs or private houses. When it became legalized, there was an explosion of church-building. The characteristic design of Latin churches was established at this time on the model of the Roman court of law (basilica). Apart from ecclesiastical structures, however, the Late Empire had relatively little to offer by way of monumental architecture. The best example is the Arch of Constantine, but this structure demonstrates that craftsmanship had declined since the era of the Pax Romana

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Ancient Rome: Art:

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Combined elements of Etruscan, Classical, and Hellenistic art Their art and architecture was often designed to make a political statement, especially in monumental structures that reflected the power of the emperors Roman engineering was an essential ingredient for maintaining the vast empire

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Ancient Rome: The Late Empire: Doctors of the Church: Augustine of Hippo

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The sack of Rome in 410 prompted pagans to blame Christianity for the disaster, but their criticisms were refuted by the North African bishop, {} (354 – 430) His response was a theological interpretation of world history entitled The City of God, which presents a linear conception of time and a sense of history guided by providence Argued that disasters like the fall of governments were unimportant compared to the rise of Christianity, for the former were concerned only with the fate of the body, whereas the latter was also the concerned with the fate of the soul This thesis led Augustine to posit two cities – the city of God, consisting of faithful believers, and the city of Satan, consisting of those who do works of evil (these included hypocritical Christians as well as pagans) Augustine did not condemn all secular philosophy – he urged instead that Christians “despoil the Egyptians” – that is, take what is useful from pagan philosophy and put it at the service of Christian theology He was well versed in Neoplatonism (having also dallied with Manichaeism) and wrestled with all manner of philosophical problems The Confessions: Revealed the inner struggle that precede his conversion in his autobiography, {} In Petrarch’s introspective work, The Secret, he converses with St. Augustine of Hippo, author of the soul-searching autobiography, The Confessions

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Ancient Rome: The Late Empire: Doctors of the Church: Augustine of Hippo: The City of God

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His response was a theological interpretation of world history entitled The City of God, which presents a linear conception of time and a sense of history guided by providence Argued that disasters like the fall of governments were unimportant compared to the rise of Christianity, for the former were concerned only with the fate of the body, whereas the latter was also the concerned with the fate of the soul

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Ancient Rome: Art: Etruscan Art

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Was the form of figurative art produced by the Etruscan civilization in northern Italy between the 9th and 2nd centuries BC. Painted frescoes and made sculptures in terra-cotta, most notably to adorn their sarcophagi (tombs), which commonly depicted a reclining husband and wife in a cheerful attitude The style is reminiscent of Greek art from the Archaic period (7th century bce), particularly with regard to the stiffness of the figures, their formal smiles, and their almond-shaped eyes Particularly strong in this tradition were figurative sculpture in terracotta (particularly life-size on sarcophagi or temples) and cast bronze, wall-painting and metalworking (especially engraved bronze mirrors). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Etruskisches_Paar.jpg

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Ancient Rome: Art: Roman Art

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In addition to naturalistic sculpture, carved reliefs, and frescoes, the Romans excelled in mosaics – colored tiles arranged to represent images, commonly of human figures or scenes of marine animals Romans also sculpted equestrian statues, most famously one representing Marcus Aurelius (c 175) observation of nature was of key importance; as in, for example, their portrait sculptures which are usually meticulously detailed and realistic. While Greek sculptors traditionally illustrated military exploits through the use of mythological allegory, the Romans used a more documentary mode. A major contribution of Roman art is the use of concrete in architecture. Buildings like the Pantheon, or Colosseum could never have been constructed with previous materials.

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Ancient Rome: The Empire: Bread and Circuses (+Citizenship):

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As the Empire expanded, citizenship was gradually extended to the subject people until 212 ce, when the emperor Caracalla declared all inhabitants of the empire full citizens. The population of the city of Rome expanded to about a million as uprooted farmers drifted to the capital in search of work. Poverty and unemployment consequently rose. Despite the measures instituted by Augustus, the Empire failed to solve these severe problems. The best it could do was to address the symptoms of social dysfunction by providing free grain and entertainment (in the form of gladiatorial games and chariot races) according to a social welfare policy known as “bread and circuses”

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Aenid

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Latin epic poem written by Virgil in the 1st century BC (between 29 and 19 BC) that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan who travelled to Italy, where he became the ancestor of the Romans. It is written in dactylic hexameter. The first six of the poem's twelve books tell the story of Aeneas' wanderings from Troy to Italy, and the poem's second half treats the Trojans' ultimately victorious war upon the Latins, under whose name Aeneas and his Trojan followers are destined to be subsumed. The hero Aeneas was already known to Greco-Roman legend and myth, having been a character in the Iliad; Virgil took the disconnected tales of Aeneas' wanderings, his vague association with the foundation of Rome and a personage of no fixed characteristics other than a scrupulous piety, and fashioned this into a compelling founding myth or nationalist epic that at once tied Rome to the legends of Troy, glorified traditional Roman virtues and legitimized the Julio-Claudian dynasty as descendants of the founders, heroes and gods of Rome and Troy. Written at the request of Augustus, and in a "prophecy" celebrates his glorious reign. Virgil's contemporaries were Horace and Ovid

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Ancient Rome: The Germanic Invasions: Burgundians

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Around the 440s, a group known as the Burgundians established themselves in southeastern Gaul, which was renamed Burgundy after them. Among their achievements was an early Germanic law code that extended to the Roman subjects within their newly-formed domain The Burgundians left three legal codes, among the earliest from any of the Germanic tribes. The Liber Consitutionum sive Lex Gundobada (The Book of the Constitution following the Law of Gundobad), also known as the Lex Burgundionum, or more simply the Lex Gundobada or the Liber, was issued in several parts between 483 and 516, principally by Gundobad, but also by his son, Sigismund. (Drew, p. 6-7) It was a record of Burgundian customary law and is typical of the many Germanic law codes from this period. In particular, the Liber borrowed from the Lex Visigothorum (Drew, p. 6) and influenced the later Lex Ribuaria. (Rivers, p. 9) The Liber is one of the primary sources for contemporary Burgundian life, as well as the history of its kings. Early Relationship with the Romans Initially, the Burgundians seem to have had a stormy relationship with the Romans. They were used by the Empire to fend off other tribes, but also raided the border regions and expanded their influence when possible.

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Jesus of Nazareth

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"Christianity began as a reform movement within Judaism led by Jesus of Nazareth (4 bce to 30 ce) Jesus was alive during a time when the Jews eagerly awaited the appearance of a leader specially chosen by God to liberate them from oppression – this individual was called the “anointed one” (Messiah in Hebrew, Christos in Greek) The followers of Jesus belivede he was the Messiah, though his teaching lacked overt political content and instead focused on an enlightened moral code summed up in two commands: 1.

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Early Preaching

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After their leader’s death, the followers of Jesus began to proclaim that he had risen from the dead and would soon return. They now believed that the Messiah, or Christ, was not a king who would free the Jews from political oppression but one who would free all people from the oppression of sin and death. They began to preach the Gospel and convert not only Jews, but also Gentiles (non-Jews), having made the crucial decision to remove the requirement of adherence to Mosaic Law. Gentiles who converted to Christianity had to accept only a few simple practices, including baptism and the Eucharist (meaning “thanksgiving” – the ritual meal in memory of Jesus), and to live up to the Christian moral code The most instrumental missionary was Saul of Tarsus, better known as St. Paul, who regularly traveled the eastern Mediterranean as far as Rome preaching, converting and guiding the fledgling Christian communities through his letters of advice and reprimand

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Eucharist

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The Eucharist, also called Holy Communion or Lord's Supper and other names, is one of the Christian sacraments said to have been instituted by Jesus of Nazareth. * The Fourth Lateran Council required that all adult Catholics recive the sacraments of confession and communion at eleast once a year and accpet the doctrine of transubstantiation (that the bread and water used in the Mass actualyl become the body and blood of Jesus Christ) Almost every Christian denomination celebrates in some form this rite, generally seeing it as a "sacrament commemorating the action of Jesus at his Last Supper with his disciples, when he gave them bread saying, 'This is my body', and wine saying, 'This is my blood'." Beginning in the Early Church as a prayer or blessing over bread and wine associated with a common meal that followed the form of earlier Jewish blessings, it evolved into more elaborate liturgies, such as the Roman Catholic Mass and the Eastern Orthodox Divine Liturgy. There are different interpretations of its significance, but "there is more of a consensus among Christians about the meaning of the Eucharist than would appear from the confessional debates over the sacramental presence, the effects of the Eucharist, and the proper auspices under which it may be celebrated." The phrase "the Eucharist" may refer not only to the rite but also to the "bread" and "cup" used in the rite, and, in this sense, communicants may speak of "receiving the Eucharist", rather than "celebrating the Eucharist".

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: The New Testament

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The first Christians expected Jesus’ imminent return within their own lifetime. Yet as it became clear this would not happen, they began to write down Jesus’ oral teaching Thus, the 4 Gospels, named after the disciples Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, were composed around 70-100 ce. Gospels, Old Testament: The Gospels became the core of the New Testament, which was regarded as a fulfillment of the prophecies of the Hebrew Bible (renamed the Old Testament). Epistles: The New Testament also includes letters, knows as Epistles, written by early Christian leaders such as St. Paul, who is regarded as the first Christian theologian. Koine: The new Scriptures were written in koine, a form of Greek that represented everyday speech rather than the literary models of the Classical period * Name given to the second major division of the Christian Bible, the first such division being the much longer Hebrew Bible (also called by Jews Tanakh), known to Christians as the Old Testament. It is sometimes called the Greek Testament or Greek Scriptures, or the New Covenant – which is the literal translation of the original Greek. The original texts were written in Koine Greek by various authors after c. AD 45 and before c. AD 140. Its 27 books were gradually collected into a single volume over a period of several centuries. The New Testament is a central element of Christianity, and has played a major role in shaping modern Western culture. Although certain Christian sects differ as to which works are included in the New Testament, the vast majority of denominations have settled on the same twenty-seven book canon: it consists of the four narratives of Jesus Christ's ministry, called "Gospels"; a narrative of the Apostles' ministries in the early church, which is also a sequel to the third Gospel; twenty-one early letters, commonly called "epistles" in Biblical context, written by various authors and consisting mostly of Christian counsel and instruction; And an Apocalyptic prophecy, which is technically the twenty-second epistle. Although the traditional timeline of composition may have been taken into account by the shapers of the current New Testament format, it is not, nor was it meant to be, in strictly chronological order. Though Jesus speaks Aramaic in it, the New Testament (including the Gospels) was written in Greek because that was the lingua franca of the Roman Empire.

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: The Appeals of Christianity

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Christianity began as a religion of the oppressed and marginalized. Earliest converts were the poor and slaves Mithraism: Women found the new faith attractive because it valued the salvation of their souls equally with that of men, unlike the mystery cult known as Mithraism, which was popular among Roman soldiers but excluded women For 3 centuries Christianity competed with the mystery cults before it became the official religion of the Roman Empire – during most of this time, it was an underground movement that suffered periodic persecutions.

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Persecutions

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The earliest communities of the nascent religion blended Jewish and Christian practices – they were persecuted by some Jewish leaders who opposed their religious reforms Saul of Tarsus initially hunted Christians before he himself became one after a dramatic conversion experience – he then endured the torments that other Christians suffered; according to tradition, he died in Rome in 64 ce, a victim of the emperor Nero, who blamed a disastrous fire in Rome on the young sect. Nero’s persecution was the first official action by a Roman emperor against Christians Although angry mobs sometimes perpetrated acts of violence against them, it was not until the third century that energetic attempts were made to eradicate their religion. The Empire suffered a series of crises at the time, and Christians were seen as as threat to political order because they refused to worship the emperor – an act that was as much a statement of patriotism as a form of religious observance. Furthermore Christian rituals were misunderstood (the Eucharist was viewed as cannibalism), and Christians were resented for their non-conformism: for example, they opposed violent entertainment such as gladiatorial combats Diocletian: The most serious official persecution was organized by Diocletian (284-305) Earlier attempts were also made by Marcus Aurelius (161-180) and Decius (249-251), among others. Christians who died in the persecutions were revered as martyrs, or “witnesses” of the faith and were accorded the status of saints (“holy ones”)

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Toleration and Official Status: Edict of Milan

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* a letter signed by emperors Constantine and Licinius, that proclaimed religious toleration in the Roman Empire. The letter was issued in 313, shortly after the conclusion of the Diocletian Persecution. Constantine: The emperor Constantine (306-337), who succeeded Diocletian, reversed the policy of persecution by issuing the Edict of Milan (313), which granted toleration to Christian. Although Constantine’s motivations are debatable, he is reported to have had a vision on the eve of the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 (near Rome) which promised him victory against a rival emperor if he accepted the Christian religion. Edict of Milan: after {}, the Church received legal rights and soon became wealthy from donations. It was not until later, however, that paganism was forbidden, making Christianity the sol religion of the Empire Julian: the emperor {} (361-363) tried to revive paganism (using Neo-Platonism as its theology), but otherwise all Roman emperors beginning with Constantine were Christians The Edict, in the form of a joint letter to be circulated among the governors of the East,[1] declared that the Empire would be neutral with regard to religious worship, officially removing all obstacles to the practice of Christianity and other religions.[2] It "declared unequivocally that the co-authors of the regulations wanted no action taken against the non-Christian cults."[3] While it is true that Constantine and Licinius must have discussed religious policy when they met at Milan in February 313, the text usually called the Edict of Milan is in fact a letter to the Governor of Bithynia of June 313, one of a series of letters issued by Licinius in the territory he conquered from Maximinus in 313. Both toleration and restitution had already been granted by Constantine in Gaul, Spain and Britain (in 306), and by Maxentius in Italy and Africa (in 306 [toleration] and 310 [restitution]). Galerius and Licinius had enacted toleration in the Balkans in 311, and Licinius probably extended restitution there in early 313. Thus the letters which Licinius issued in the names of himself and Constantine (as was routine for imperial documents, which were formally issued in the names of all legitimate co-rulers) were designed solely to enact toleration and restitution in Anatolia and Oriens, which had been under the rule of Maximinus. Christianity had previously been decriminalized in April 311 by Galerius, who was the first emperor to issue an edict of toleration for all religious creeds, including Christianity.[4] The Christian historian Philip Schaff noted that the second edict went beyond the first edict of 311: "it was a decisive step from hostile neutrality to friendly neutrality and protection, and prepared the way for the legal recognition of Christianity, as the religion of the empire."[5] The wording of the Edict reveals that such developments, however, remained in the future. The letter gives detailed instructions to the governor for the restitution of sequestered Christian property.

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Monasticism

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"* The transformation of Christianity from an oppressed faith to the official religion of the empire ensured its survival but also change its quality * Many people became Christians in order to ingratiate themselves with the imperial family or to take advantage of the wealth that now belonged to the Church “Desert Fathers”: Some devout Christians reacted by fleeing to the wilderness and living lives of prayer in seclusion - these became the first Christian monks, known as the “Desert Fathers”. Although many of them were hermits who practiced a harsh ascetic regimen, such as: St. Anthony of Egypt (c 250 – 350) St. Simon Stylites (c 390-459): lived on top of a pillar in Syria •

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Monasticism: Desert Fathers

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"The transformation of Christianity from an oppressed faith to the official religion of the empire ensured its survival but also change its quality Many people became Christians in order to ingratiate themselves with the imperial family or to take advantage of the wealth that now belonged to the Church “Desert Fathers”: Some devout Christians reacted by fleeing to the wilderness and living lives of prayer in seclusion - these became the first Christian monks, known as the “Desert Fathers”. Although many of them were hermits who practiced a harsh ascetic regimen, such as: St. Anthony of Egypt (c 250 – 350) St. Simon Stylites (c 390-459): lived on top of a pillar in Syria •

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Ancient Rome: Ancient Rome: Christianity: Heresy and Orthodoxy

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* Heresy is a dislocation of some complete and self-supporting system of belief, especially a religion, by the introduction of a novel denial of some part therein. * unorthodoxy: any opinions or doctrines at variance with the official or orthodox position Another effect of Christianity’s rise to dominance in the Roman Empire was the politicization of its theological disputes. ! Differences of opinion over doctrine, always a matter of controversy, now became an occasion for persecution by one Christian group against another ! Doctrines that were sanctioned by the imperial government were labeled “orthodoxy” (right teaching), whereas doctrines without such support were called “heresy” (sectarianism). ! Heresy was regarded not merely as religious non-conformism, but a crime against the state. Orthodoxy generally corresponded to the majority view, as determined by bishops in council, but often emperors pushed their own views against the judgment of bishops, or entire provinces might oppose the official teaching, as a political statement of regionalism. These disagreements sometimes erupted into riots and undermined the unity of the empire. Since Constantine had intended Christianity to be a unifying force within the empire, he was the first to take measures to resolve the theological disputes. ! Ecumenical: the principal mechanism for establishing correct teaching was the general, or “ecumenical” church council. These conferences of bishops were initially convened by emperors. The early controversies focused on the Trinity, that is, the three persons of God (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), and generated three main heresies

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Council of Nicaea (325): Against Arianism;

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Constantine convened the Council of Nicaea in 325 in order to settle the dispute over the nature of the relationship between Jesus Christ and the Father This council established the Nicene Creed, a series of statements which assert that Jesus, as the Son of God, is equal to the Father (these two persons are “consubstantial” and “coeternal”). Arianism: Arianism is the theological teaching of Arius (c. AD 250-336), who was ruled a heretic by the Christian church at the Council of Nicea. Arius lived and taught in Alexandria, Egypt, in the early 4th century. The most controversial of his teachings dealt with the relationship between God the Father and the person of Jesus, saying that Jesus was not one with the Father, and that he was not fully, although almost, divine in nature. !! The Council of Nicaea therefore condemned Arianism, the teaching of the theologian Arius that the Son is subordinate. The next council, at Constantinople (381), reaffirmed the Council of Nicaea and added that the Holy Spirit is also equal to the Father and The Son

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Councile of Ephesus (431): Against Nestorianism;

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The 3rd general council focused on the person of Christ and condemned the teachings of the theologian Nestorius, who taught that the two natures of Jesus (human and divine) require that he should be regarded as two persons Defined the orthodox position as follows: Jesus has two natures (human and divine) which are joined in a single person (the second person of the Trinity) Despite persecution, Nestorian Christians continued to exist in Syria

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Council of Chalcedon (451): Against Monophysitism;

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The fourth general council also focused on the person of Christ Condemned the teaching known as Monophysitism, which holds that Jesus has only one nature (mone-, one; physis, nature) Monophysites claimed that Jesus is divine, but not human. Orthodox thinkers condemned this teaching because it opposed the position defined at Ephesus and seemed to deny the possibility of salvation (which was thought to depend on Christ’s role as a mediator between divinity and humanity) Although persecuted, Monophysitism persisted in Egypt and Syria (where it was know as the Jacobite Church)

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Leadership of the Church

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During the late Roman Empire, there was tension over the question of the ecclesiastical leadership – by the second century, Rom hade become the center of Christianity The bishops of Rome claimed to be the successors of St. Peter, the Apostle designated by Jesus as leader of the Church, who according to tradition was the first bishop of Rome, martyred during the persecutions of Nero in 64ce. Apostolic Succession, Pope: this concept of AS served as the basis of the claim by the bishops of Rome to spiritual authority over the whole Church. They adopted the title of “pope” (papa in Latin, which means “father”) to designate their special status Christians did not agree on the supremacy of Rome. When the capital of the empire was moved to Constantinople, the bishops (patriarchs) of that city claimed leadership in the east. The patriarchs of other ancient Christian centers – Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria also claimed a certain status of regional leadership. “Caesaropapism”: the situation was complicated by the emperors, who often intervened in religious affairs (their claim to church leadership is called {}). The various conflicting claims to leadership were never resolved but became the cause of later divisions within the Church.

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: Citizenship

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Social War (90-88 bce) – name after Rome’s allies (socii in Latin), who seceded because the Senate refused to grant their demands for status as full citizens. These tensions caused a “constitutional challenge” The Senate finally conceded when threatened by a massive uprising in the eastern provinces led by Mithridates, King of Pontus in Anatolia

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: Civil War

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The Romans became divided over which general to send against Mithridates: Sulla: favored by the optimates Marus: favored by the populares When Sulla finally left for the front, Marius used his private army to march on Rom and kill his opponents Marius died in 86 bce, and when Sulla returned to Italy, he executed Marius’s supporters and broke Roman precedent by serving as dictator for more than the maximum of six months Although he relinquished power in 80 bce, rival generals continued to jockey for position

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Ancient Rome: The Late Empire: Imitation and Preservation of the Classics

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While churchmen explored uncharted intellectual territory and laid down principles for a new society, the educational institutions of the empire disintegrated Apart from theology, little that was written was new Most literary productions either imitated earlier models or summarized previous learning, and the emphasis was on preservation rather than creation Yet there were certain innovations: For example, in preserving ancient texts, there was a transition from the use of the papyrus scroll to the codex – a book with pages – which is still in use today

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: Class Struggle

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The influx of wealth from the conquered territories, as well as the devastation suffered in Italy during the Second Punic War, altered the character of the Republic latifundia: The wealthy profited from new overseas markets that had been opened by conquest, whereas small farmers were ruined – there farms were brought up by large landowners to form immense estates called latifundia These estates were devoted to raising cattle and were worked by prisoners of war whom the wealthy owners imported as slaves Spartacus: Harsh treatment of these slaves led to sporadic revolts on a massive scale, most famously the one led by the gladiator Spartacus in 73-71 bce. …yet the greater threat for the Republic came from the dislocation of citizens as class struggle escalated

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: Conquest of the Med:

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Without a rival to oppose them, the Romans methodically conquered all the shores of the Med Battle of Cynocephale (197 bce) After fighting 4 wars with Macedon, in which the Romans demonstrated the superiority of the legion over the phalanx, they subjugated Greece and moved through Anatolia into the Near East The Romans did not have to fight for all their acquisitions – the heirless king of Pergamum in western Anatolia willed his kingdom to the Romans in 133 bce, and the kingdom of Bithynia (in northern Anatolia) was granted to Rome by a similar arrangement in 74 bce The last major state to resist the Romans was Egypt, which fell in 30 bce

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Ancient Rome: Reorganization of the Empire: Constantine the Great

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(306-337) Succeeded Diocletian Reversed the policy of persecution by issuing: The Edict of Milan (313): granted toleration to Christians Although his motivations are debatable, his is reported to have had a vision on the even of the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 (near Rome), which promised him victory against a rival emperor if he accepted the Christian religion After the Edict of Milan, the Church received legal rights and soon became wealthy from donations Diocletian’s administrative reforms were successful, but his solution for the imperial succession was not – as long as he governed as the senior Augustus, the other 3 emperors did as he intended – after he retired in 305, however, the emperors came into conflict. By 312, two remained standing: Constantine in the west and Licinius in the east; they ruled their halves of the empire until 324, when Constantine defeated his rival and became the sole emperor

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Ancient Rome: Founding of Constantinople

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330: Constantine abandoned Rome – it had became a strategic and financial backwater Founded a new capital called Constantinople at a defensible position in the northeast of the Empire, upon the site of the ancient city of Byzantium at the entrance to the Black Sea Chose Byzantium because it would facilitate the defense of the unstable northern and eastern borders and set the capital in the more prosperous eastern provinces, where revenue could be raised more effectively Although the move was intended to strengthen the empire, it foreshadowed the decline of the city of Rome and the western empire in the following century

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Ancient Rome: Diocletian

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(284 -305) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Roman_empire_395.jpg Initiated a series of reforms that saved the empire: Tetrarchy: rule by 4 emperors: (to prevent) future civil wars over imperial succession and to deal more effectively with invasions Prefecture: Each emperor in charge of a quarter an empire, known as {} (province) Furthermore, to prevent provincial governors from amassing too much power, Diocletian reorganized imperial administration – he broke large provinces up into small ones, thereby limiting the resources that an overly ambitious governor could use to stage a coup d’etat Dioceses: (3 in each prefecture) the many provinces were organized into twelve units called {}, and each diocese was managed by a vicar who answered to a Caesar or an Augustus The new imperial administration improved the centralization of power by streamlining the chain of command; a larger bureaucracy, which was needed to collect increased taxes, likewise diluted the power of individual governors. Took drastic measures to deal with the shortage of manpower and revenue Serfdom: Required that farmers remain tied to the land (thereby setting the foundation for serfdom in the middle ages, and that sons carry on their father’s trade (which foreshadowed the guild system) Tried to stop inflation by fixing prices and wages – this measure was impossible to enforce and was a complete failure In order to enforce obedience to his imperial authority, which he structured on the model of oriental despotism, Diocletian severely punished dissent – frustrated by the refusal of the Christians to show their patriotism by worshipping the cult of the emperor, hi tried to stamp out Christianity Was acclaimed emperor by the army Separated and enlarged the empire's civil and military services and re-organized the empire's provincial divisions, establishing the largest and most bureaucratic government in the history of the Empire Bureaucratic and military growth, constant campaigning, and construction projects increased the state's expenditures, and necessitated a comprehensive tax reform Diocletian's attempt to curb inflation via price controls, was unsuccessful, counterproductive, and quickly ignored The Diocletianic Persecution, the empire's last systematic persecution of Christianity, failed to significantly weaken the Church, and by 324, the empire would be ruled by the Christian emperor Constantine. In spite of his failures, Diocletian's reforms fundamentally changed the structure of Roman imperial government and helped stabilize the empire economically and militarily, enabling an empire that had seemed near the brink of collapse in Diocletian's youth to remain essentially intact for another hundred years. Weakened by illness, Diocletian left the imperial office on May 1, 305, and became the first Roman emperor to voluntarily abdicate the position.

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Ancient Rome: The Late Empire: Doctors of the Church

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“Great Doctors of the Western Church” The vital service rendered by these men in the foundation of the Church was acknowledged during the Middle Agese by identifying them as “Doctors” (teachers) of the Church, of which there are four Latin Ambrose (c 339 – 397) Superb administrator, powereful orator, and vigorous opponent of Arianism First major churchman to assert that in the realm of morality, the emperor himself is accountable to the Christian priesthood - challenged the power of the state by forcing the emperor Theodosius (379-395) to do public penance under pain of excommunication (denial of church services) when he had executed a number of citizens for participating in a riot Thus, Ambrose demonstrated the psychological power of the Church and at the same time established that Christian statesmen are not free to ignore the moral injunctions of Christianity for the sake of political expediency Augustine of Hippo: ! Foremost philosopher of Roman antiquity To Augustine, the central goal of the Christian life was to attain the salvation that Christ's sacrifice had made possible - Yet Augustine insisted that humans were powerless to achieve this salvation except through divine grace". Wrote voluminously against various pagan and heretical doctrines, and, in the course of these disputes, he examined many of the central problems that have occupied theologinas ever sinec:the nature of the Trinity; the existence of evil; etc. Argued that disasters like the fall of governments were unimportant compared to the rise of Christianity, for the former were concerned only with the fate of the body, whereas the latter was also the concerned with the fate of the soul This thesis led Augustine to posit two cities – the city of God, consisting of faithful believers, and the city of Satan, consisting of those who do works of evil (these included hypocritical Christians as well as pagans) The necessity of divine grace to human salvation is a central theme in Augustine's "City of God" Augustine did not condemn all secular philosophy – he urged insteade tha Christians “despoil the Egyptians” – that is, take what is useful from pagan philosophy and put it at the service of Christian theology He was well versed in Neoplatonism (having also dallied with Manichaeism) and wrestled with all manner of philosophical problems The Confessions: Revealed the inner struggle that precede his conversion in his autobiography, {} Jerome, (347-420)

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Ancient Rome: The Late Empire: Doctors of the Church: Augustine of Hippo:

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Augustine of Hippo: Argued that disasters like the fall of governments were unimportant compared to the rise of Christianity, for the former were concerned only with the fate of the body, whereas the latter was also the concerned with the fate of the soul This thesis led Augustine to posit two cities – the city of God, consisting of faithful believers, and the city of Satan, consisting of those who do works of evil (these included hypocritical Christians as well as pagans) Augustine did not condemn all secular philosophy – he urged insteade tha Christians “despoil the Egyptians” – that is, take what is useful from pagan philosophy and put it at the service of Christian theology He was well versed in Neoplatonism (having also dallied with Manichaeism) and wrestled with all manner of philosophical problems The Confessions: Revealed the inner struggle that precede his conversion in his autobiography, {}

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Ancient Rome: The Empire: Emperors

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The republic’s death and the empire’s birth were never openly proclaimed The senate continued to exert some influence and consuls were still elected, but power now resided in the hands of one man In order to legitimate the idea of a single prominent man governing the empire, the Romans instituted the cult of the emperor, who was worshiped as a god As a god, he was above the law – his power to create law thus legitimated his authority Early emperors were deified only after their death and were worshiped retrospectively, but later emperors were worshipped during their lifetimes It’s a testament to the viability of the new system that it survived even when the holder of power was unstable (Nero) or insane (Caligula) For the most part, however, the early Roman emperors were effective rulers, and the sprawling region under the control of Rome benefited from the ability of a single ruler to make decisions for the entire empire

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Ancient Rome: The Empire: Crisis of the Third Century

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After the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180), the Roman Empire faced a series of threats that nearly destroyed it The barbarians breached the borders in the north while a new Persian dynasty: The Sassanians, launched aggressive campaigns in the east Military expenditures increased while a period of economic decline set in Manpower shortages hampered both defense and economics, and they were aggravated by waves of disease that swept through the Empire To make matters worse, as the military became more prominent, power fell into the hands of the generals, who recklessly fought one another for control of the empire, ruling through puppet emperors who were frequently murdered in coups d’etat

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Ancient Rome: The Fall of Rome

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Essentially, the empire in the west disintegrated because the resources needed to defend the entire empire could no longer be raised, and the emperors in the new eastern capital sacrificed it as the less defensible region It is important to distinguish between the fate of the city of Rome and the fate of the Roman Empire, for the fall of the city did not result in the immediate disintegration of the Empire Most importantly, the emperors in Constantinople persisted until the end of the Middle Ages, and justifiably called themselves “Romans,” since the Empire they governed was really a continuation of the evolving institution founded by Augustus Caesar Furthermore, even in the west, the Roman Empire did not come to an end in any clearly identifiable year – the end of the western imperial line in 476 ce, merely recognized the fact that the office of the western emperor had become a meaningless position some time before it was finally abandoned. The cultural tradition of the Roman Empire continued to exert its influence and blended with the cultural tradition of the Germanic barbarians, resulting in the creation of a distinct, medieval culture

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Ancient Rome: Engineering

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The Romans connected their cities with straight roads designed to expedite the movement of armies Aqueducts: supplied fresh water and made sewers possible (municipal bathhouses would not have been possible without the extensive use of aqueducts) Important for supplying water to large cities across the empire Set a high standard of engineering that was not surpassed for more than a thousand years. No mortar was needed to build these structures as the stones fit together so precisely. Although famously associated with the Romans, aqueducts were devised much earlier in the Near East and Indian subcontinent, where peoples such as the Egyptians and Harappans built sophisticated irrigation systems. Roman-style aqueducts were used as early as the 7th century BC, when the Assyrians built a limestone aqueduct 30 feet (10 m) high and 900 feet (300 m) long to carry water across a valley to their capital city, Nineveh. The full length of the aqueduct ran for 50 miles (80 km). Roman sanitation was unequaled until the 19th century One of the most impressive Roman acqeducts is the Pont du Gard, near Nimes in southern France, which was built around 1 ce. At one location along its 31 – mil course , the aqueduct crosses the Gard River onn a bridge 160 feet high supported by massive rounded arches

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Ancient Rome: Engineering: Aqueducts

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The Romans connected their cities with straight roads designed to expedite the movement of armies Aqueducts: supplied fresh water and made sewers possible (municipal bathhouses would not have been possible without the extensive use of aqueducts) Important for supplying water to large cities across the empire Set a high standard of engineering that was not surpassed for more than a thousand years. No mortar was needed to build these structures as the stones fit together so precisely. Although famously associated with the Romans, aqueducts were devised much earlier in the Near East and Indian subcontinent, where peoples such as the Egyptians and Harappans built sophisticated irrigation systems. Roman-style aqueducts were used as early as the 7th century BC, when the Assyrians built a limestone aqueduct 30 feet (10 m) high and 900 feet (300 m) long to carry water across a valley to their capital city, Nineveh. The full length of the aqueduct ran for 50 miles (80 km). Roman sanitation was unequaled until the 19th century One of the most impressive Roman acqeducts is the Pont du Gard, near Nimes in southern France, which was built around 1 ce. At one location along its 31 – mil course , the aqueduct crosses the Gard River onn a bridge 160 feet high supported by massive rounded arches

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Ancient Rome: Etruscans

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Ancient Rome: Etruscans The early Romans were governed by a neighboring group called the Etruscans, who lived to the north in Etruria Etruscan kings governed Rome until the Romans rebelled and drove them out in 509 bce Having expelled the Etruscan kings, the Romans rejected the instituion of kingship, since they believed government belongs to the people, not an individual Res publica: They called their new government the "public thing" (However, the right to hold office was initially limited to the wealthy, landowning families of nobles, known as patricians, who comprisied about ten percent of the population Nevertheless, the Romans were indebted to the Etruscans for many things, including: engineering techniques (draining marshes and constructing sewers) the use of the arch in architecture the alphabet (which they acquired from the Greeks) many religious rituals especially techniques of divination by observing omens such as the entrails of sacrificial animals the flight of birds History: Etruscan history is the written record of Etruscan civilization compiled mainly by Greek and Roman authors. Apart from their inscriptions, from which information mainly of a sociological character can be extracted, the Etruscans left no surviving history of their own, nor is there any mention in the Roman authors that any was ever written. Remnants of Etruscan writings are often concerned with religion and rituals. Etruscan settlements were frequently built on a hill—the steeper the better—and surrounded by thick walls * culture and way of life of a people of ancient Italy and Corsica whom the ancient Romans called Etrusci or Tusci.[1] The Attic Greek word for them was Τυρρήνιοι (Tyrrhēnioi) from which Latin also drew the names Tyrrhēni (Etruscans), Tyrrhēnia (Etruria) and Tyrrhēnum mare (Tyrrhenian Sea).[2] The Etruscans themselves used the term Rasenna, which was syncopated to Rasna or Raśna.[3] As distinguished by its own language, the civilization endured from an unknown prehistoric time prior to the founding of Rome until its complete assimilation to Italic Rome in the Roman Republic. At its maximum extent during the foundation period of Rome and the Roman kingdom, it flourished in three confederacies of cities: of Etruria, of the Po valley with the eastern Alps, and of Latium and Campania.[4] Rome was sited in Etruscan territory. There is considerable evidence that early Rome was dominated by Etruscans until the Romans sacked Veii in 396 BC. Culture that is identifiably and certainly Etruscan developed in Italy after about 800 BC approximately over the range of the preceding Iron Age Villanovan culture. The latter gave way in the seventh century to a culture that was influenced by Greek traders and Greek neighbors in Magna Graecia, the Hellenic civilization of southern Italy.

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Ancient Rome: Expansion

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As Roman population increased, the supply of land became insufficient, and the Romans began to look beyond their borders to settle colonists Adopted conquest as a defensive strategy after Rome was sacked in 390 bce by the Gauls (a Celtic people living in the Po river valley to the north) Early Roman armies, like those of the Greeks were organized into phalanxes of about 8,000 men, but later Romans devised a more flexible form of organization, the legion, which was made up of about 5,000 men organized into small units called maniples that could act independently and take on larger forces by outmaneuvering them Using legions, the Romans steadily conquered their neighbors

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: The First Triumvirate

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Pompey, Crassus, Julius Caesar: most ambitious men at this ?? time, whose power rested in their private armies Although rivals, they established a three-way alliance known as a triumvirate to oppose the Senate, which thwarted their designs for personal aggrandizement 53 bc: This delicate balance was upset in 53 bc when Crassus died and the two remaining triumvirs could not agree on redrawing their spheres of influence, in part because of Caesar’s stunning conquest of the Celts in Gaul (modern France) during the 50s bce (49-45 bc) The situation exploded into civil war when Caesar, returning from Gaul, crossed the Rubicon River on the border of Italy without disbanding his army, as demanded by Pompey and the Senate Pharsalus: Pompey was defeated by Caesar at Pharsalus (48 bce) and died a fugitive in Egypt Ides of March: Although Caesar showed magnanimity to his vanquished opponents, alarmed senators led by conservatives Brutus and Cassius feared he would try to proclaim himself king – in the hope off saving the Republic, they organized a conspiracy that assassinated Caesar on the Ides of March (March 15), 44 bce. Caesar’s supporters were outraged and Rome suffered another round of civil war (44-42 bce), which ended in the defeat of the assassins Julian calendar: Among Ceasar’s achievements, his most far-reaching was the reform of the calendar by adding leap years. This Julian calendar, with minor adjustments, is still in use.

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Ancient Rome: Geography

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Founded in the 8the century bce (traditionally 753) near the moth of the Tiber River by speakers of the Latin language, who lived in a region called Latium Location about halfway down the west side of the Italian peninsula favored its rise to power Far from the powerful centers of advanced civilization in the Near East, Italy was protected from land invasions by the waters surrounding it on three sides and by the Alps, which provided a barrier that was infrequently crossed by invaders The Italian peninsula itself is not very mountainous: the range of the Apennines running down the center does not greatly inhibit overland travel – thus a single state could conquer and control the various peoples of Italy Rome’s central location within Italy gave it an advantage, since its armies did not have to travel far to get to any point on the peninsula, and its situation on seven hills helped them defend the city from attackers Once the Romans unified Italy, they found that their position in the center of the Med gave them an advantage in controlling the entire sea The Romans were also helped by the mild climate of Italy and its good farmland, which spared them the economic troubles that afflicted Greece

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: Early Contact

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Romans first encountered Germanic tribes when the Teutones and Cimbr tried to invade Italy but were defeated by Marius in 102-101 bc ~ 50 bce J. Caesar challenged the Germans across the Rhine during his conquest of Celtic Gaul Augustus Caesar later sent three legions to subdue the Germans and add their territory to the growing empire, but the Roman forces were annihilated in 9 ce by the German general Arminius (Hermann) in the Teutoburger Forest, ending Roman attempts to subjugate Germany

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: Border Wars

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Relations between Romans and Germans consisted largely of peaceful trade, but toward the end of the second century ce Germanic tribes began to raid the provinces, forcing Marcus Aurelius (161-180) to spend long years campaigning to protect the northern borders Faced with shortages of manpower, he established a dangerous precedent by conducting alliances with some of the German tribes, known as foederati (“federates”), who were allowed to settle within the borders of the empire in exchange for defending it against other Germanic tribes Over time, more and more tribes became foederati, and an increasing percentage of Roman legions were manned by German recruits, eventually with German generals commanding them Entrusting the empire’s defenes to allied barbarians was effective in the short term, but ultimately contributed to the decline of the empire

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: The Great Migrations

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In the 3rd century Germanic groups seized the Roman province of Dacia and invade the Balkans, plundering Greece and Anatolia German pirates even raided Mediterranean shipping for a time, but eventually the invaders were expelled and the borders stabilizied In the 4th and 5th centuries, however, the northern borders effectively disintegrated – German tribes entered the empire at will, and Roman emperors could not force them back. Most of the barbarians were not intent on destruction – they were impressed by Roman civilization and attracted by its wealth, which they hoped to control The invasions beginning in the 4th century are often described as “migrations” because they involved the movement of entire tribes, including women and children, who wandered through the empire like nomads They typically would settle in one place for years until supplies were exhausted, then move on to another location Violence against the Roman population was not continuous, although it did flare up at times While the number of barbarians wandering through the empire was always a small fraction of the imperial population, their presence strained the economy and weakened imperial administration, even in the absence of violence

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: Visigoths

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! One of two main branches of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe, the Ostrogoths being the other. ! Together these tribes were among the barbarians who disturbed the late Roman Empire during the Migration Period. ! The Visigoths first emerge as a distinct people during the fourth century, initially in the Balkans, where they participated in several wars with Rome. ! A Visigothic army under Alaric I eventually moved into Italy and famously sacked Rome in 410. ****** The migrations began with the Visigoths (“West Goths”), who received permission from the Emperor Valens to enter the Balkans in 376 in order to escape the Huns, an Asiatic group of marauding nomads Abused by Roman administrators, however, the Visigoths revolted and Valens was killed in 378 at the Battle of Adrianople (in the Balkans) The Visigoths then made peace with the Romans and remained in the northern Balkans until 395, when a new leader, Alaric, guided them into the wealthier provinces of Greece and Italy They plundered Rome in 410 – the first time the city was seized by outsiders in 800 years (since the Guals in 390 bce); However, the Visigoths did not conduct a general massacre of the inhabitants. They had already been converted to Christianity by Ulfilas (c 311-382), an Arian who translated the Bible into Gothic, so they did not destroy churches or harm anyone who sought sanctuary in them Soon Alaric die, and the Visigoths were led by Alaric’s successor into southern Gual and Spain, where the settled

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: Vandals

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! East Germanic tribe that entered the late Roman Empire during the 5th century. ! The Goth Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths and regent of the Visigoths, was allied by marriage with the Vandals as well as with the Burgundians and the Franks under Clovis I. ! The Vandals are perhaps best known for their sack of Rome in 455. Although they were not notably more destructive than others, the high regard in which later European cultures came to hold ancient Rome led to the association of the name of the tribe with persons who cause senseless destruction, particularly in diminution of aesthetic appeal or destruction of objects that were completed with great effort. ( 406: a number of tribes, including the Suevi, Vandals and Alans (a non – Germanic group), crossed into the Rhine into Gual, beginning migrations that brought some of them into North Africa The movement was led by the Vandals, who passed through Visigoth-occupied Spain and reached North Africa in 429 under their king, Gaiseric (428-477). Vandalism: 455: they mounted a raid into Italy across the Med and sacked Rome; the modern term vandalism is derived from them. The Vandals, like the Visigoths, were Arian Christians and were therefore despised as heretics They in turn persecuted Orthodox (Catholic) Christians)

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: Angles, Saxons and Jutes

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By 410 the Romans had pulled all their legions from Britain in order to defend the provinces on the Continent. For protection against the Picts (ancient inhabitants of Scotland), the Britons asked for help from Germanic tribes, who then turned against the Britons, forcing them into Wales and occupying most of the island The 3 principle tribes were the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who over time became one people The region of Britain occupied by the invaders was named England after the Angles, predominated. Unlike the Visigoths and Vandals, the Germanic invaders of Britain were pagan, not Christian

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: Burgundians

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~ 440s, a group known as the Burgundians established themselves in southeastern Gual, which was renamed Burgundy after them Among their achievements was an early Germanic law code that extended to the Roman subjects within their newly-formed domain East Germanic tribe which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of Bornholm, whose old form in Old Norse still was Burgundarholmr (the Island of the Burgundians), and from there to mainland Europe. In Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar, Veseti settled in an island or holm, which was called Borgund's holm, i.e. Bornholm. Alfred the Great's translation of Orosius uses the name Burgenda land. The poet and early mythologist Viktor Rydberg (1828–1895), (Our Fathers' Godsaga) asserted from an early medieval source, Vita Sigismundi, that the Burgundians themselves retained oral traditions about their Scandinavian origin.

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: Huns

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A pagan group from central Asia known as the Huns had established an empire over several German tribes in Europe Under Attila ( 433-453) “Scourge of God”< they invade Gaul in 451 but were stopped near Chalons by an alliance of Romans and Visigoths In 452 Attila threatened to sack Rome, but Pope Leo I ( 440-451) persuaded him to spare the city; the next year Attila died and his empire disintegrated The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads,[1] with a Turkic core of aristocracy. Some of these Eurasian tribes moved into Europe in the 4th and 5th centuries, most famously under Attila the Hun. Huns remaining in Asia are recorded by neighboring peoples to the south, east, and west as having occupied Central Asia roughly from the 4th century to the 6th century, with some surviving in the Caucasus until the early 8th century.

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: The Last Roman Emperor in the West

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When the Visigoths approach Italy early in the 5th century, the western emperor withdrew to the more defensible city of Ravenna on the Adriatic coast Odoacer : In 476 however, a Gothic general in the Roman army named Odoacer (Odovacar) staged a coup d’etat with his German troops, seized Ravenna, and deposed the youthful emperor, Romulus Augustulus (475-476) Zeno: This emperor was not replaced by a successor – instead, Odoacer made himself king of Italy with the acquiescence of the eastern Roman emperor, Zeno (474-491), who was momentarily powerless to affect events in the west. Thus ended the western line of Roman emperors * Roman general and the first barbarian ruler of Italy after 476. He deposed the last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustus, that year, but continued to rule as a client of the Emperor in Constantinople.[1] Odoacer is referred to as a king (Latin rex) in many documents, but the title appears to be informal, though he himself used it at least once and on another occasion it was used by the consul Basilius.[2]

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: Ostrogoths: (“East Goths”)

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488: Zeno sent his ally Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths (474-526), to overthrow Odoacer in Ravenna Theodoric thus became king of Italy in 493 Although the Ostrogoths (“East Goths”) initially ruled with the approval of the emperors in Constantinople, Justinian the Great (527-565) launched a war against them and reclaimed Italy in a long and terrible struggle lasting from 535 to 555 * Branch of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe that played a major role in the political events of the late Roman Empire. The other branch was the Visigoths. The Ostrogoths established a relatively short-lived successor state of Rome in Italy and the Balkans, even briefly incorporating most of Hispania and southern Gaul. They reached their zenith under their Romanised king Theodoric the Great, who patronised such late Roman figures as Boethius and Cassiodorus, in the first quarter of the sixth century. By mid-century, however, they had been conquered by Rome in the Gothic War (535–554), a war with devastating consequences for Italy

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: Lombards

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Justinians’s reconquest of Italy did not endure 568: the pagan Lombards invaded Italy and by 572 established a kingdom in the Po valley, which became Lombardy Constantinople was atble to retain only southern Italy and a few coastal cities en the north, including Ravenna Rome was claimed by the eastern emperors but not effectively defended by them The Lombards finally converted to Christianity, but they often threatened the popes, who eventually turned to the Franks for protection The Lombard kingdom lasted until 774, when it was overthrown by the Frankish king, Charlemagne

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: Franks

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The most successful of the barbarian groups were the Franks, from whom France gets it name They were pagan when they entered Gaul, but converted to Catholicism rather than Arian Christianity around 500 under their king Clovis (481-411), thereby winning the goodwill and support of the clergy The Frankish kingdom was ruled by two dynasties – the Merovingian and Carolingian – whose policies shaped the early Middle Ages in western Europe

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: The Gracchi

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Brothers Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, reform-minded members of the aristostocracy who opposed the self-interest and conservatism of the senators, championed the dispossessed plebeians as Peoples’s Tribunes. However, their drastic attempts at reform led to their assassination in riots (in 133 and 121 bce, respectively) They tried to redistribute the land, extend Roman citizenship to the Italian allies, and curb the power of the senators over the courts by transferring judicial duties to the equestrian class Their only lasting measure was to ease the plight of the impoverished by means of a state subsidy for the purchase of bread

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Ancient Rome: Jews in the Roman Empire: Roman Rule

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Relations between Romans and Jews began on a positive note Led by the Hasmonean dynasty (the Maccabees), the Jews of Palestine rebelled against the Hellenistic rule of the Seleucids in 175-164 bce and allied themselves with Rome in 161 and 134 bce After winning their independence, they began to fight among themselves When Pompey the Great visited the region in 63 bce, he found two brothers struggling for the throne and intervened to stop the civil war by imposing Roman rule At first the Romans tried to rule Judea indirectly, through local kings such as Herod (37-4bce), but when this approach proved ineffective, they transformed the region from a client state to a province ruled directly by a Roman governor Jewish society under Roman occupation was deeply divided – 4 major groups: Zealots: violently opposed the occupation Sadducees: collaborated with the Roman occupation Pharisees: resisted assimilation into Greco-Roman culture by adhering carefully to Mosaic Law Essenes: fled the wilderness and lived a kind of isolated monastic lifestyle To maintain peace with the Jews, the Romans granted them certain concessions, such as exemption from honoring the cult of the emperor or performing military service Yet even such favored treatment was not enough to conciliate the occupied people

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Ancient Rome: Jews in the Roman Empire: Rebellions

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Masada: 66 ce: Judea erupted in a revolt that was bloodily suppressed after years of fighting; the last isolated Jewish fortress, Masada, was taken in 73 bec The Romans destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem in 70 ce and deported many Hadrian, Bar-Kochba : Later, the emperor Hadrian’s attempt to Romanize Judea – particularly his decision to build a pagan temple in the holy city – triggered a revolt under the Messsianic leader Bar-Kochba (132-135 ce) Many died in the ruthless suppression of the rebellion and survivors had to flee the devastated area

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Ancient Rome: Jews in the Roman Empire

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Diaspora: The suppression of Bar-Kochba’s rebellion marked the end of Jerusalem as the effective focal point of Jewish life Synagogues replaced the Temple as the center of worship, and Jewish culture endured in the Diaspora Mishnah: Its theological development continued in the rabbinic schools, which established a comprehensive body of Jewish civil and religious law, know as the Mishnah, around 200 ce. Over the following centuries until about 600 ce, the Mishnah received commentary known as the Gemara, of which there are two versions: one compiled in Palestine, the other in Babylonia. The Babylonian version became authoritative Together the Mishnah and Gemara are known as the Talmud; this transformation of Judaism after the destruction of the Temple was also partly a reaction to an attempt to reform Judaism by a sect know as the Christians

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Ancient Rome: Jews in the Roman Empire: Diaspora

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* Diaspora (in Greek, διασπορά – "a scattering or sowing of seeds") refers to the forced or voluntary dispersal of any population sharing common ethnic identity to leave their settled territory, and become residents in areas often far removed from the former. It is converse to the nomadic form of lifestyle. Diaspora cultural development often assumes a different course to the population in the original place of settlement, and tends to vary between remotely separated communities in culture, traditions and other factors. The last vestige of cultural affiliation in a Diaspora is usually found in community resistance to language change. The suppression of Bar-Kochba’s rebellion marked the end of Jerusalem as the effective focal point of Jewish life Synagogues replaced the Temple as the center of worship, and Jewish culture endured in the Diaspora Mishnah: Its theological development continued in the rabbinic schools, which established a comprehensive body of Jewish civil and religious law, know as the Mishnah, around 200 ce. Over the following centuries until about 600 ce, the Mishnah received commentary known as the Gemara, of which there are two versions: one compiled in Palestine, the other in Babylonia. The Babylonian version became authoritative Together the Mishnah and Gemara are known as the Talmud; this transformation of Judaism after the destruction of the Temple was also partly a reaction to an attempt to reform Judaism by a sect know as the Christians

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Ancient Rome: Julius Caesar

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100 BC - 44 BC Roman military and political leader. Played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire politician of the populares tradition Historians place the generalship of Caesar as one of the greatest military strategists and tacticians who ever lived, along with Alexander the Great, Sun Tzu, Hannibal, Genghis Khan and Napoleon Bonaparte. Caesar's successful campaigning in any terrain and under all weather conditions owes much to the strict but fair discipline of his legionaries, whose admiration and devotion to him were proverbial due to his promotion of those of skill over those of nobility. Caesar was considered during his lifetime to be one of the best orators and authors of prose in Rome—even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style formed an unofficial triumvirate with Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus which dominated Roman politics for several years, opposed in the Roman Senate by optimates like Marcus Porcius Cato and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. His conquest of Gaul extended the Roman world all the way to the Atlantic Ocean Conducted the first Roman invasion of Britain in 55 BC The collapse of the triumvirate, however, led to a stand-off with Pompey and the Senate. Leading his legions across the Rubicon, Caesar began a civil war in 49 BC from which he became the undisputed master of the Roman world. After assuming control of government, he began extensive reforms of Roman society and government. He was proclaimed dictator for life (dictator perpetuus), and heavily centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic. A group of senators, led by Caesar's former friend Marcus Junius Brutus, assassinated the dictator on the Ides of March (March 15) in 44 BC: The Roman middle and lower classes, with whom Caesar was immensely popular, and had been since Gaul and before, were enraged that a small group of high-browed aristocrats had killed their champion. MORE: Bread-and-circus => the farmer –soldier of early Rome now gave way to new mentality, one more concerned with bloody sporting events such as gladiatorial contests than with political rights and duties The republic’s last hope for substantive reform was Julius Caesar, a major figure in Roman politics from 60 to 44 bce.. Caesar had emerge as a great public hero by pacifying Gaul (France). The commander of a loyal and formidable army, he had defeated rival generals to become Rome’s sole ruler in 48bce. He took his authority from the many title and powers he held, including dictator for life, consul, and head of the armies. Future Roman emperors recognized him as their predecessor by calling themselves Caesar, or “ruler” With the possible exception of Alexander the Great, no other Western rule as generated such praise or blame from philosophers, poets, and artists But Caesar’s enemies in the senate believed that the dictator wanted to be king – the dreaded fear dating back to Etruscan Rome. On the Ides of March in 44 bce, a band of senatorial assassins murdered Caesar, and Rome plunged into Chaos. A new leader emerged from the years of unrest that followed: Octavian, Caesar’s great-nephew and adopted son. His accession to power in 31 bce marked the beginning of the Pax Roman (Roman peace), a 200 year period of unprecedented tranquility and economic growth – but it also marked the gradual dismantling of the republic and the establishment of an autocratic empire Hoping to restore the normal running of the Republic. In 42 BC, two years after his assassination, the Senate officially sanctified Caesar as one of the Roman deities. Historians place the generalship of Caesar as one of the greatest military strategists and tacticians who ever lived, along with Alexander the Great, Sun Tzu, Hannibal, Genghis Khan and Napoleon Bonaparte. Caesar suffered occasional tactical defeats, such as Battle of Gergovia during the Gallic War and the Battle of Dyrrhachium during the Civil War. However, his tactical brilliance was highlighted by such feats as his circumvallation of Alesia during the Gallic War, the rout of Pompey's numerically superior forces at Pharsalus during the Civil War, and the complete destruction of Pharnaces' army at Battle of Zela.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Marcus Tullius Cicero

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Roman statesman, lawyer, political theorist, and philosopher. Cicero is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.[1][2] Senator and lawyer whose massive output included speeches given in the Senate and the courts, letters to friends, and philosophical works, which he work during his enforced retirement by Julius Ceasar Popularized Greek philosophy and espoused Stoicism As a defender of the Republic, he wrote diatribes against Marc Antony known as the Philippics (Executed for his outspoken opposition)

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Ancient Rome: Law

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Perhaps the most important contribution of the Romans was their sophisticated body of written law (as opposed to literature) Constantly added to the original code of the Twelve Tables (c 450 bce) as need arose, on the basis of decrees by the Senate, assemblies, judges, and emperors The later development of Roman law was motivated by the need of the emperors to govern diverse peoples according to a universal code, and it received inspiration from the Stoic concept of natural law By the second century ce, the emperors were the only source of law and beginning with Hadrian, ordered compilations that conveniently formulated existing decisions. Corpus Juris: Trained legal scholars became vital in this endeavor from the second to the early third century, and produced authoritative textbooks – these formed the basis for the final codification ordered by the Emperor Justinian (527-565) known as the Corpus Juris Civilis, “Body of Civil Law” Emperor Theodosius II , Codex Theodosianus: In the interim, the Emperor Theodosius II (408-450) codified imperial legislation in a collection known as the Codex Theodosianus, or Thedosian Code (438)

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Ancient Rome: Law: Corpus Juris Civilis

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Perhaps the most important contribution of the Romans was their sophisticated body of written law (as opposed to literature) Constantly added to the original code of the Twelve Tables (c 450 bce) as need arose, on the basis of decrees by the Senate, assemblies, judges, and emperors The later development of Roman law was motivated by the need of the emperors to govern diverse peoples according to a universal code, and it received inspiration from the Stoic concept of natural law By the second century ce, the emperors were the only source of law and beginning wit Hadrian, ordered compilations that conveniently formulated existing decisions. Corpus Juris: Trained legal scholars became vital in this endeavor from the second to the early third century, and produced authoritative textbooks – these formed the basis for the final codification ordered by the Emperor Justinian (527-565) known as the Corpus Juris Civilis, “Body of Civil Law” Emperor Theodosius II , Codex Theodosianus: In the interim, the Emperor Theodosius II (408-450) codified imperial legislation in a collection known as the Codex Theodosianus, or Thedosian Code (438) Perhaps Justinian’s greatest achievement was the codification of Roman law, which he entrusted to a team of legal experts led by the jurist Tribonian in the 530s. Justinian’s Code, a collection of volumes written in Latin and known by the title “Corpus Juris Civilis” (“Body of Civil Law”), put many centuries of Roman legal precepts and judicial decisions into an orderly system It served as the law code for the Byzantine Empire until the 9th century, when a condensed version known as the Basilica was issued in Greek Later, Justinian’s Code served as a textbook during the revival of legal studies in western Europe * Modern name[1] for a collection of fundamental works in jurisprudence, issued from 529 to 534 by order of Justinian I, Byzantine Emperor. This code compiled, in the Latin language, all of the existing imperial constitutiones (imperial pronouncements having the force of law), back to the time of Hadrian. It used both the Codex Theodosianus and the fourth-century collections embodied in the Codex Gregorianus and Codex Hermogenianus, which provided the model for division into books that were divided into titles. These codices had developed authoritative standing.[2] Justinian gave orders to collect legal materials of various kinds into several new codes which became the basis of the revival of Roman law in the Middle Ages. This revived Roman law, in turn, became the foundation of law in all civil law jurisdictions. The provisions of the Corpus Juris Civilis also influenced the Canon Law of the church since it was said that ecclesia vivit lege romana — the church lives under Roman law.[3] The work was directed by Tribonian, an official in Justinian's court, and distributed in three parts: Digesta (or "Pandectae"), Institutiones, and the Codex Constitutionum. A fourth part, the Novels (or "Novellae Constitutiones"), was added later.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Early Poetry and Drama

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Ennius (269-169 bce): earliest Roman poet, presented the history of Rome in an epic called Annales Exceptional poets of the late Republic included: Catullus (85-54 bce), who wrote passionate love lyrics about his unfaithful mistress Lucretius (96-55 bce), who described the Epicurean world view in his philosophical poem “On the Nature of Things” The early Romans were generally not deep thinkers, they had little interest in tragedy, but greatly enjoyed comedy, which was mastered by: Plautus (254-184 bce) Terence (190-159 bce) Their works influenced generations of later playwrights, including Shakespeare

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Prose

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On Agriculture: Cato the Elder’s manual - Earliest known prose work, gives advice on running a country estate (c160 bce) Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 bce): most accomplished writer of Latin prose, a senator and lawyer whose massive output included speeches given in the Senate and the courts, letters to friends, and philosophical works which he wrote during his enforced retirement by Julius Caesar (who was also an accomplished wirter, publishing his memoirs on the conquest of Gual) Cicero: popularized Greek philosophy and espoused Stoicism – as a defender of the Republic, he wrote diatribes against Marc Antony known as the Philippics, but he was executed for his outspoken opposition

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Golden Age (43 bce – 14 ce)

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Augustus Caesar patronized three poets whose celebrated works represent the golden age of Roman literature Virgil: (70-19 bce): “Aeneid” (modeled on Homer’s epics) describes the legendary foundation of the Roman state by the fugitive Trojan prince, Aeneas; it was written at the request of Augustus, and in a “prophecy” celebrates his glorious reign Horace (65-8 bce): wrote lyrics on various themes Ovid (43 bce 17 ce): wrote the Metamorphoses, which portrays myths of transformation in Greco-Roman mythology, and a long poem On the Art of Love, a manual for seduction Ovid was later exiled by Augustus for his connection to a scandal involving a member of the imperial family Livy: (59 bce – 17 ce): historian; greatest prose author of the golden age

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Silver Age (14 –c. 138 ce)

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During the first century of the Roman empire, writers found that they could not afford to offend emperors who ruled with absolute power – this limit on freedom of expression coincided with a general decline in Roman virtues, which led to a pervading sense of pessimism in literature from the reign of Tiberius (14-37 ce) to Hadrian (117-138 ce) Germanian: the historian Tacitus (c 55-117 ce) deplores the decline of Roman character while ironically praising the heroic simplicity of the barbarians Seneca: (c 4-65 ce): Stoic philosopher wrote tragedies and was executed by Nero, as was his nephew, Lucan (39-65 ce), who wrote the Pharsalia: depicts the civil war between Caesar and Pompey Satirists vented their frustration at the general decline in morals, most notably: Persius (34-62 ce): Petronius (d 66) Juvenal (c 65-128 ce)

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Later Works

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The Golden Ass: the 1st Latin novel, was written by Apuleius (c 125-200 ce), a philosopher who had to defend himself in court against an accusation of sorcery Marcus Aurelius (161-180 ce) wrote an influential work of Stoic philosophy as Meditations 2 highly influential scientific authorities appeared during the second century: Galen (c 129-199) provide a systematic theory of medicine Ptolemy (c 100-170): wrote a book of astronomy known as the Almagest: offered mathematical proofs to support the geocentric theory In the later period, however, creativity began to wane, and many authors devoted themselves to preserving the literary and intellectual heritage in encyclopedic works: Two influential encyclopedic writers were: Macrobius (4th century) Martianus Capella (fifth century)

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: Marius

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Roman general and politician elected consul an unprecedented seven times during his career Noted for: * dramatic reforms of Roman armies, authorizing recruitment of landless citizens * reorganizing the structure of the legions into separate cohorts. The Romans first encountered Germanic tribes when the Teutones and Cimbri tried to invade Italy, but were defeated by Marius in 102-101 bce: Constitutional shortcomings which indicated that the Roman Republic was ill-equipped to run an empire became evident when Numidia, a client state in North Africa led by Jugurtha, rebelled and German barbarians (Teutones and Cimbri) threatened Italy from the north Both of these threats were overcome by the brilliant general Marius, who won the Jugurthine War in 111-106 bc and defeated the Germans in southern Gaul in 102-101 bce However, the extended fighting required him to be elected consul for several years consecutively, which was a major breach of precedent Marius also found it necessary to reform the Roman army – since recruits were drawn from among the owners of small farms, the decline of these farms led to a serious shortage of manpower To deal with this problem, Marius waived the property requirement, paid his troops wages, and provided them with land when they retired – *** this policy set a dangerous precedent, for soldiers now became loyal to their general, who provided the necessities of life, rather than the estate, which had failed to help the in their need

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: Pax Romana

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From the reign of Augustus (27 bce – 14 ce) to the death of Marcus Aurelius (161-180 ce) (~200 years) Rome enjoyed a period of stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana (“Roman peace”) Foreign war of conquest continued on the borders, but Rome was free of civil wars (with the exception of the year 68 ce, when four rivals claimed the imperial throne upon Nero’s death) Augustus managed to unite the Med, but his invasion of Germany failed in 9 ce. The Empire continued to expand elsewhere for over a hundred years, most notably into Britain (43 ce) and Dacia in the Balkan peninsula 9106 ce) - it was at its greatest extent in 117 ce, when Roman legions briefly occupied Mesopotamia * Long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by military force experienced by the Roman Empire in the first and second centuries AD. Since it was established by the Emperor Augustus it is sometimes called Pax Augustea. Its timing was approximately from 27 BC to 180 AD. The idea of "Pax Romana", Roman peace, was first presented by Edward Gibbon. Gibbon proposed a period of moderation under Augustus and his successors and argued that generals bent on expansion (e.g. Germanicus, Agricola and Corbulo) were checked and recalled by the Emperors during their victories. Gibbon lists the Roman conquest of Britain under Claudius and the conquests of Trajan as exceptions to this policy of moderation and places the end of the period at the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180 AD, despite the conclusion of peace by the latter's son Commodus in the same year. Despite the term, the period was not without armed conflict, as Emperors frequently had to quell rebellions. Additionally, both border skirmishes and Roman wars of conquest happened during this period. Trajan embarked on a series of campaigns against the Parthians during his reign and Marcus Aurelius spent almost the entire last decade of his rule defending the frontiers of the Empire, especially against Germanic tribes.

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: Public Office

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Advancement in public office required military service and began with low-ranking positions, such as Quaestor: kept financial accounts Aedile: organized public works. Higher positions included: Praetor: who presided at legal trials Censor: whose principle task was to maintain census records (in order to determine who was eligible for military conscription and public office), but who also enforced morals Censors: highly respected, for they were drawn from a select pool of officials who had served as consuls, or chief magistrates Two consuls were elected each year by the assembly and had a range of administrative, judicial and military functions; since they enjoyed king-like powers (known as imperium), each consul had the right to veto the other in order to prevent abuses Dictator: In times of crisis, the Senate could appoint a dictator who for six months held supreme power that was not subject to veto Romans who sought election as praetors or consuls wore a special called the toga candidate, or “whitened toga”; the English word candidate is derived from this Latin expression

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: Punic Wars

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* The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146 BC, and were probably the largest wars yet of the ancient world. They are known as the Punic Wars because the Latin term for Carthaginian was Punici (older Poenici, from their Phoenician ancestry). The main cause of the Punic Wars was the clash of interests between the existing Carthaginian Empire and the expanding Roman Republic. The Romans were initially interested in expansion via Sicily, part of which lay under Carthaginian control. At the start of the first Punic War, Carthage was the dominant power of the Western Mediterranean, with an extensive maritime empire, while Rome was the rapidly ascending power in Italy. By the end of the third war, after more than a hundred years and the deaths of many hundreds of thousands of soldiers from both sides, Rome had conquered Carthage's empire and razed the city, becoming the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean. With the end of the Macedonian wars — which ran concurrently with the Punic wars — and the defeat of the Seleucid King Antiochus III the Great in the Roman-Syrian War (Treaty of Apamea, 188 BC) in the eastern sea, Rome emerged as the dominant Mediterranean power and one of the most powerful cities in the classical world.* Became embroiled with the Carthaginians oven Sicily as the two growing empires collided Carthage, founded as a Phoenician colony in North Africa (modern Tunisia) around 88 bce, had expanded into an empire that dominated maritime The rivals engade in 3 terrible conflicts known as the Punic Wars (Punicus in Latin means “Phoenician”) to decide who would control the Med First Punic War (264- 241 bce): consisted principally of naval engagements, gave Sicily to Rome Second Punic War (218-201 bce) began in Spain and spread to Italy as the Carthaginian general, Hannibal, daringly crossed the Alps with his war elephants – although Hannibal raided Italy for 15 years, he was unable to conquer the Romans, who changed tactics after the disastrous: Battle of Cannae (216 bce) “Fabian tactics”: Fabian refused to fight Hannibal in a pitched battle, but harassed his supply lines – these “Fabian tactics” prevented Hannibal’s occupation from breaking the Roman state Scipio the elder, Battle of Zama: The Second Punic War ended when the Romans opened a new front by invading North Africa under the leadership of Scipio the elder and defeated the Carthaginians at the Battle of Zama (202 bce) Over half a century of uneasy peace followed until the conclusive Third Punic War (149-146 bce), which was instigated by the Roman statesman, Cato the Elder, who ended all his speeches with the phrase, “Carthage must be desctroyed” Carthage was soon reduced to ruins by Scipio the Younger

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: Punic Wars: Hannibal

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Became embroiled with the Carthaginians oven Sicily as the two growing empires collided First Punic War (264- 241 bce): consisted principally of naval engagements, gave Sicily to Rome Second Punic War (218-201 bce) began in Spain and spread to Italy as the Carthaginian general, Hannibal, daringly crossed the Alps with his war elephants – although Hannibal raided Italy for 15 years, he was unable to conquer the Romans, who changed tactics after the disastrous: Battle of Cannae (216 bce) “Fabian tactics”: Fabian refused to fight Hannibal in a pitched battle, but harassed his supply lines – these “Fabian tactics” prevented Hannibal’s occupation from breaking the Roman state Carthaginian military commander and tactician, later also working in other professions, who is popularly credited as one of the finest commanders in history. He lived during a period of tension in the Mediterranean, when Rome (then the Roman Republic) established its supremacy over other great powers such as Carthage, and the Hellenistic Kingdoms of Macedon, Syracuse, and the Seleucid empire. He is one of the best-known Carthaginian commanders. His most famous achievement was at the outbreak of the Second Punic War, when he marched an army, which included war elephants, from Iberia over the Pyrenees and the Alps into northern Italy. During his invasion of Italy, he defeated the Romans in a series of battles, including those at Trebia, Trasimene and Cannae. He maintained an army in Italy for more than a decade afterward, never losing a major engagement, but could not force the Romans to accept his terms for peace. A Roman counter-invasion of North Africa forced him to return to Carthage, where he was defeated in the Battle of Zama. After the war he successfully ran for the office of shofet. He enacted political and financial reforms to enable the payment of the war indemnity imposed by Rome. However, his reforms were unpopular with members of the upper Roman class forcing Hannibal to go into exile. During his exile, he lived at the Seleucid court, where he acted as military advisor to Antiochus III in his war against Rome. After Antiochus III met defeat and was forced to accept their terms, Hannibal fled again, making a stop in Armenia, where he worked as a planner for the new capital. His flight ended in the court of Bithynia where he may have achieved an outstanding naval victory by means of biological warfare and was afterwards betrayed to the Romans. Hannibal was one of the three greatest generals of the age, together with Scipion and Philopoemen, and Scipion called him one of the greatest generals that ever lived, placing Pyrrhus of Epirus in second place and himself in third place. When questioned by Scipio, Hannibal said that Alexander the Great was the greatest general, followed by Pyrrhus and then himself. Military historian Theodore Ayrault Dodge once famously called Hannibal the "father of strategy", because his greatest enemy, Rome, came to adopt elements of his military tactics in its own strategic arsenal. This praise has earned him a strong reputation in the modern world and he was regarded as a "gifted strategist" by men like Napoleon Bonaparte and the Duke of Wellington. His life has been the basis for a number of films and documentaries. He has been attributed with the famous quotation, "We will either find a way, or make one."

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Ancient Rome: Religion: Polytheism and Syncretism

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! Syncretism consists of the attempt to reconcile disparate or contradictory beliefs, often while melding practices of various schools of thought. ! The term may refer to attempts to merge and analogize several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, and thus assert an underlying unity allowing for an inclusive approach to other faiths The Romans were polytheists and worshiped many of the same gods as the Greeks, though they often gave them alternate names The Romans were also very eclectic and practiced syncretism, like the Egyptians Their techniques of divination reflect Etruscan influence

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Ancient Rome: Religion: Ancestor Worship and State Religion

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A central feature of Roman religion was the worship of deceased ancestors and “household spirits” (minor gods who guarded the home), which were commonly represented by idols The goddess Vesta protected the hearth and was served by twelve Vestal Virgins, whose primary task was to keep her sacred fire burning The Romans linked religion with politics; priesthoods were, in fact, public offices Pontifex Maximus: The office of chief priest, or Pontifex Maximus, was held at one time by Julius Caesar and was later adopted by the emperors The Cult of Emperor arose as an expression of patriotism

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Ancient Rome: Religion: Mystery Cults

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State religion, with its emphasis on the here and now, eventually ceased to offer meaningful spiritual satisfaction While many Roman of the imperial period looked to philosophy (especially Stoicism) for their spiritual needs, others turned to mystery cults, which offered the promise of eternal life At first the Romans adopted the Greek cults of Dionysos (Bacchus) Cybele (a mother goddess from Anatolia) …later they accepted the Egyptian cult of Isis and Osiris (popular among women) Persian cult of Mithras (popular among soldiers)

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Ancient Rome: Religion: Gnosticism and Manichaeism

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There were also religions that combined philosophy with elements of the mystery cults such as Gnosticism and Manichaeism, both of which competed with Christianity for followers The Gnostics, who were influential during the second and third centuries ce, claimed that they possessed a secret form of revealed knowledge (gnosis) – their elaborate mythological theology and writings known as Gnostic Gospels reflected a dualistic world-view in which spirit was regarded as good while matter was despised as evil The Manichaeans, followers of a Persian mystic named Mani (c 216-275 ce), were also dualists and believed the world was caught in a struggle between the forces of light and darkness (which was associated with spirit and matter, respectively) In the 3rd century ce there was also a very influential revival of Platonic philosophy known as Neoplatonism

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Ancient Rome: Religion: Neoplatonism

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Although Neoplatonism was founded by Plotinus (c 205-270 ce) as a school of philosophy, it included a mystical dimension Later Neoplatonists added magical rituals: Porphyry (c 233-305) Iamblichus (c 250-300) Prorclus (c 410-485) There were important parallels between later Neoplatonism and Christianity, and the two influenced one another considerably, even though they generally condemned one another’s teachings Although the Roman Empire finally accepted Christianity in the 4th century, its attitude toward the Judeo-Christian tradition until then was one of hostility * modern term for a school of religious and mystical philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD, founded by Plotinus and based on the teachings of Plato and earlier Platonists. The term was first coined by Thomas Taylor, in his translation of Plotinus' Enneads. Taylor was the first to translate Plotinus' works into English. Neoplatonists would have considered themselves simply "Platonists", and the modern distinction is due to the perception that their philosophy contained enough unique interpretations of Plato to make it substantively different from what Plato wrote and believed. The Neoplatonism of Plotinus and Porphyry has been referred to as really being orthodox (neo)Platonic philosophy by scholars like Professor John D. Turner. This distinction provides a contrast with later movements of Neoplatonism, such as those of Iamblichus and Proclus. Movements which embraced magical practices or theurgy as part of the soul's development in the process of the soul's return to the Source. This could also be due to one possible motive of Plotinus, being to clarify some of the traditions in the teachings of Plato that had been misrepresented before Iamblichus (see Neoplatonism and Gnosticism). Neoplatonism is generally a religious philosophy. Neoplatonism is a form of idealistic monism (also called theistic monism) and combines elements of Polytheism (see Monistic-polytheism). Although the founder of Neoplatonism is supposed to have been Ammonius Saccas, the Enneads of his pupil Plotinus are the primary and classical document of Neoplatonism. As a form of mysticism, it contains theoretical and practical parts, the first dealing with the high origin of the human soul showing how it has departed from its first estate, and the second showing the way by which the soul may again return to the Eternal and Supreme. The system can be divided between the invisible world and the phenomenal world, the former containing the transcendent One from which emanates an eternal, perfect, essence (nous), which, in turn, produces the world-soul. The One The primeval Being is the One and the Infinite, as opposed to the many and the finite. It is the source of all life, and therefore absolute causality and the only real existence. It is, moreover, the Good, insofar as all finite things have their purpose in it, and ought to flow back to it. But one cannot attach moral attributes to the original Being itself, because these would imply limitation. It has no attributes of any kind; it is being without magnitude, without life, without thought; in strict propriety, indeed, we ought not to speak of it as existing; it is "above existence," "above goodness." It is also active force without a substratum; as active force the primeval Being is perpetually producing something else, without alteration, or motion, or diminution of itself. This production is not a physical process, but an emission of force; and, since the product has real existence only in virtue of the original existence working in it, Neoplatonism may be described as a species of dynamic panentheism. Directly or indirectly, everything is brought forth by the "One." In it all things, so far as they have being, are divine, and God is all in all. Derived existence, however, is not like the original Being itself, but is subject to a law of diminishing completeness. It is indeed an image and reflection of the first Being; but the further the line of successive projections is prolonged the smaller is its share in the true existence. The totality of being may thus be conceived as a series of concentric circles, fading away towards the verge of non-existence, the force of the original Being in the outermost circle being a vanishing quantity. Each lower stage of being is united with the "One" by all the higher stages, and receives its share of reality only by transmission through them. All derived existence, however, has a drift towards, a longing for, the higher, and bends towards it so far as its nature will permit. Plotinus' treatment of the substance or essence (ousia) of the one was to reconcile Plato and Aristotle. Where Aristotle treated the monad as a single entity made up of one substance (here as energeia). Plotinus reconciled Aristotle with Plato's "the good" by expressing the substance or essence of the one as potential or force.[4] Demiurge or Nous The original Being first of all emanates, or throws out the nous, which is a perfect image of the One and the archetype of all existing things. It is at once being and thought, ideal world and idea. As image, the nous corresponds perfectly to the One, but as derived it is entirely different. What Plotinus understands by the nous is the highest sphere accessible to the human mind, and, along with that, pure thought itself. As nous is the most critical component of idealism. Neoplatonism being a pure form of idealism. The demiurge or nous as the energy or ergon (does the work) that manifests or organizes the material world into perceivablity. The world-soul The image and product of the motionless nous is the world-soul, which, according to Plotinus, is, like the nous, immaterial. Its relation to the nous is the same as that of the nous to the One. It stands between the nous and the phenomenal world, is permeated and illuminated by the former, but is also in contact with the latter. The nous is indivisible; the world-soul may preserve its unity and remain in the nous, but at the same time it has the power of uniting with the corporeal world and thus being disintegrated. It therefore occupies an intermediate position. As a single world-soul it belongs in essence and destination to the intelligible world; but it also embraces innumerable individual souls; and these can either submit to be ruled by the nous, or turn aside to the sensual and lose themselves in the finite. The phenomenal world The soul, as a moving essence, generates the corporeal or phenomenal world. This world ought to be so pervaded by the soul that its various parts should remain in perfect harmony. Plotinus is no dualist, like the Christian Gnostics; in contrast he admires the beauty and splendor of the world. So long as idea governs matter, or the soul governs the body, the world is fair and good. It is an image - though a shadowy image - of the upper world, and the degrees of better and worse in it are essential to the harmony of the whole. But in the actual phenomenal world unity and harmony are replaced by strife or discord; the result is a conflict, a becoming and vanishing, an illusive existence. And the reason for this state of things is that bodies rest on a substratum of matter. Matter is the indeterminate: that which has no qualities. If destitute of form and idea, it is evil; as capable of form it is neutral. Evil here is understood as a parasitic, having no-existence of its own (parahypostasis), unavoidable outcome of the Universe, having an "other" necessity, as a harmonizing factor.[7] The human souls which have descended into corporeality are those which have allowed themselves to be ensnared by sensuality and overpowered by lust. They now seek to cut themselves loose from their true being; and, striving after independence, they assume a false existence. They must turn back from this; and, since they have not lost their freedom, a conversion is still possible.

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Ancient Rome: The Republic

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Having expelled the Etruscan kings, the Romans rejected the institution of kingship, since they believed government belongs to the people, not an individual Res Publica: They called their new government the “public thing” (res publica, Republic) which functioned by electing magistrates to hold public office However, the right to hold office was initially limited to the wealthy, landowning families of nobles, known as patricians, who comprised about ten percent of the population They controlled policy mainly through the Senate, which was made up of approximately 300 members In theory the patricians represented the rest of the citizens, known as plebeians (or plebes), but in practice the two classes were usually at odds Over the course of centuries, the plebeians managed to expand their political rights, partly by threatening to withhold military service unless they received concessions Among the earliest concessions was a written code of laws known as the Twelve Tables, published about 450 bce They were also granted a People’s Tribune (a magistrate who could veto the Senate) and the right to hold an assembly, which in 287 bce no longer needed the approval of the Senate to pass legislation The plebeians were eventually allowed to hold public office and work their way up the political ranks as the patricians did Between the patricians and plebeians were the equestrians, a knightly class who initially served as cavalry, but later on assumed financial roles as tax collectors and contractors for the government

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: The Second Triumvirate

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Caesar’s supporters were led by three men who formed a second triumvirate to dominate affairs in Rome: Octavian: Julius Caesar’s grandnephew Marc Antony Lepidus Eventually, Marc Antory and Octavian squeezed Lepidus out, then fought one another for supremacy Octavian, a shrewd propagandist, undercut support for Marc Antony by drawing attention to his love affair with Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic queen of Egypt, and raising fears that Marc Antony would try to rule Rome as an oriental despot 31bce: Octavian defeated Marc Antony and Cleopatra in a naval battle at Actium, off the western coast of Greece With Cleopatra gone, the last of the Hellenistic kingdoms came to an end and the Romans added Egypt to their territorial possessions

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Ancient Rome: Reorganization of the Empire: Crisis of the Third Century

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After the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180), the Roman Empire faced a series of threats that nearly desctroyed it The barbarians breached the borders in the north while a new Persian dynasty, the Sassanians, launched aggressive campaigns in the east Military expenditures increased while a period of economic decline set in Manpower shortages hampered both defense and economics, and they were aggravated by waves of disease that swept through the Empire To make matters worse, as the military became more prominent, power fell into the hands of the generals, who recklessly fought one another for control of the empire, ruling through puppet emperors who were frequently murdered in coups d’etat.

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: Unrest

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The influx of wealth from the conquered territories, as well as the devastation suffered in Italy during the Second Punic War, altered the character of the Republic The wealthy profited from new overseas markets that had been opened by conquest, whereas small farmers were ruined Latifundia: Farms were bought up by large landowners to form immense estates called latifundia – these estates were devoted to raising cattle and were worked by prisoners of war whom the wealthy owners imported as slaves Harsh treatment of these slaves led to sporadic revolts on a massive scale, most famously the one led by the gladiator Spartacus in 73-71 bce Yet the greater threat for the Republic came from the dislocation of citizens as class struggle escalated

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Ancient Rome: Marc Antony

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Roman politician and general. important supporter of Gaius Julius Caesar as a military commander and administrator. Second Triumvirate: After Caesar's assassination, Antony formed an official political alliance with Octavian (Augustus) and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, known to historians today as the Second Triumvirate. Eventually, Marc Antory and Octavian squeezed Lepidus out, then fought one another for supremacy Octavian, a shrewd propagandist, undercut support for Marc Antony by drawing attention to his love affair with Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic queen of Egypt, and raising fears that Marc Antony would try to rule Rome as an oriental despot 31bce: Octavian defeated Marc Antony and Cleopatra in a naval battle at Actium, off the western coast of Greece With Cleopatra gone, the last of the Hellenistic kingdoms came to an end and the Romans added Egypt to their territorial possessions

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Apuleius

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"Wrote “Metamorphoses” (also known as “The Golden Ass”) •

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Ancient Rome: Jews in the Roman Empire: Bar Kochba

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Jewish leader who led what is known as Bar Kokhba's revolt against the Roman Empire in 132 CE, establishing an independent Jewish state of Israel which he ruled for three years as Nasi ("prince," or "president"). His state was conquered by the Romans in 135 CE following a two-year war. He became the last king of Israel in history.

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Ancient Rome: Caesaropapism

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The idea of combining the power of secular government with, or making it superior to, the spiritual authority of the Christian Church; especially concerning the connection of the Christian Church with government. In its extreme form, it is a political theory in which the head of state, notably the Emperor ('Caesar', by extension an 'equal' King), is also the supreme head of the church ('papa', pope or analogous religious leader). In this form, it inverts theocracy in which institutions of the Church are in control of the state. “The situation was complicated by the emperors, who often intervened in religious affairs (their claim to church leadership is called {})

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Ancient Rome: The Empire: Caligula

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Roman Emperor who reigned from 16 March 37 until his assassination on 24 January 41. Caligula was the third emperor of the Roman Empire, and a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty which descended from Augustus. There are few surviving sources on reign of Caligula, none of which paint the emperor in a favorable light, instead focusing upon his cruelty, extravagance and sexual perversity, presenting him as an insane tyrant. While the reliability of these sources has been difficult to assess, what is known is that during his brief reign, Caligula worked to increase the authority of the Principate, but struggled to maintain his position in the face of several conspiracies to overthrow him. On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated as the result of a conspiracy involving members of his own bodyguard and the Roman Senate. The conspirators' attempt to use the opportunity to restore the Roman Republic was thwarted, as the same day the Praetorian Guard declared Caligula's uncle Claudius emperor in his place.

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Ancient Rome: Monasticism: John Cassian

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(c 360 – 433) “All three of these prominent Desert Fathers lived in the Near East; from there monasticism was spread to western Europe by men like John Cassian” * Christian theologian celebrated in both the Western and Eastern Churches for his mystical writings. He is known both as one of the "Scythian monks" and as one of the "Desert Fathers."

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Prose: Cato the Elder

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“On Agriculture”: manual, which gives advice on running a country estate (c 160 bce): earliest known prose work

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Prose: Catullus

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Roman poet of the 1st century BC. Exceptional poets of the late Republic include Catullus (85-54 bce), who wrote passionate love lyrics about his unfaithful mistress His work remains widely studied, and continues to influence poetry and other forms of art. Catullus' poetry was greatly influenced by the Greek neoteroi, Latin poetae novi or "new poets". Catullus and Callimachus did not describe the feats of ancient heroes and gods (except perhaps in re-evaluating and predominantly artistic circumstances, e.g. poems 63 and 64), focusing instead on small-scale personal themes. Catullus was also an admirer of Sappho, a female poet of the 7th century BC, and is the source for much of what we know or infer about her.

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Ancient Rome: Late Empire: The Confessions

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Series of 13 autobiographical books by St. Augustine of Hippo written between AD 397 and AD 398. (He revealed the inner struggle that preceded his conversion in his autobio, {}) In modern times, the books are usually published as a single volume known as The Confessions of St. Augustine in order to distinguish the book from other books with similar titles such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Confessions. Outline Augustine's sinful youth and his conversion to Christianity. It is widely seen as the first Western autobiography ever written, and was an influential model for Christian writers throughout the following 1000 years of the Middle Ages. It is not a complete autobiography, as it was written in his early 40s, and he lived long afterwards, producing another important work (City of God); it does, nonetheless, provide an unbroken record of his development of thought and is the most complete record of any single individual from the 4th and 5th centuries. It is a significant theological work. In the work St. Augustine writes about how much he regrets having led a sinful and immoral life. He discusses his regrets for following the Manichaean religion and believing in astrology. He writes about Nebridius's role in helping to persuade him that astrology was not only incorrect but evil, and St. Ambrose's role in his conversion to Christianity. He shows intense sorrow for his sexual sins, and writes on the importance of sexual morality. He also mentions that his favorite subject in school was mathematics because it was concrete and more rigorously defined than other subjects. The book is thought to be divisible into chapters which symbolize various aspects of the Trinity and trinitarian belief.

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Decius

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(249-251): Persecuted Christians (others: Diocletian, Marcus Aurelius, etc) Seeing it as a disruptive force, early in 250 Decius issued the edict for the suppression of Christianity. Exploiting popular hostility as a means of unifying the Empire, the "Decian persecution" famous to Christians began. Another motive for this persecution may have been Decius' religious views and pride in his Empire. He was a Roman of the old style who wished to restore Rome to its ancient glory. However, there were several factors eclipsing this glory: barbarian incursions into the Empire were becoming more and more daring, the ancient traditions were being forgotten, and the Empire was facing a serious economic crisis. To a traditionalist such as Decius, it would seem obvious that these problems were partly caused by the people neglecting the ancient gods. For Rome's ancient glory to return, she would need to return to her ancient religion. Therefore, Decius may have tried to stamp out the Christians because they were daily turning more and more people away from the traditional practices of worship and therefore, according to Decius' religious views, daily turning the gods away from Rome.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Early Poetry and Drama: Ennius

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* writer during the period of the Roman Republic, and is often considered the father of Roman poetry. He was of Greek descent. Although only fragments of his works survive, his influence in Latin literature was significant. (269-169 bce): earliest Roman poet, presented the history of Rome in an epic called Annales The Annals was an epic poem in fifteen books, later expanded to eighteen, covering Roman history from the fall of Troy in 1184 BC down to the censorship of Cato the Elder in 184 BC. It was the first Latin poem to adopt the dactylic hexameter metre used in Greek epic and didactic, leading it to become the standard metre for these genres in Latin poetry. The Annals became a school text for Roman schoolchildren, eventually supplanted by Virgil's Aeneid. About 600 lines survive. "The idle mind knows not what it wants." - Ennius "Amicus certus in re incerta cernitur." - Ennius (quoted by Cicero, Laelius 17.64) Translation: "A sure friend shows himself in an unsure time" *** Ennius' more famous works include: the Epicharmus, the Euhemerus, the Hedyphagetica, Saturae, and the Annals (Annales in Latin). The Epicharmus presented an account of the gods and the physical operations of the universe. In it, the poet dreamed he had been transported after death to some place of heavenly enlightenment. The Euhemerus presented a theological doctrine of a vastly different type in a mock-simple prose style modelled on the Greek of Euhemerus of Messene and several other theological writers. According to this doctrine, the gods of Olympus were not supernatural powers still actively intervening in the affairs of men, but great generals, statesmen and inventors of olden times commemorated after death in extraordinary ways. The Hedyphagetica took much of its substance from the gastronomical epic of Archestratus of Gela. The eleven extant hexameters have prosodical features avoided in the more serious Annales.

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Ancient Rome: Jews in the Roman Empire: Roman Rule: Essenes

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Jewish society under Roman occupation was deeply divided – 4 major groups: Essenes: fled the wilderness and lived a kind of isolated monastic lifestyle Zealots: violently opposed the occupation Sadducees: collaborated with the Roman occupation Pharisees: resisted assimilation into Greco-Roman culture by adhering carefully to Mosaic Law * The Essenes were, strictly speaking, an ascetic Jewish religious group that flourished from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD. Many separate, but related religious groups of that era shared similar mystic, eschatological, messianic, and ascetic beliefs. These groups are collectively referred to by various scholars as the "Essenes". The Essenes have gained fame in modern times as a result of the discovery of an extensive group of religious documents known as the Dead Sea Scrolls, commonly believed as being their library. These documents include preserved multiple copies of the Hebrew Bible untouched from as early as 300 BC until their discovery in 1946. The multiple copies of the Old Testament in the original Hebrew confirmed that the Old Testament has remained relatively unchanged since it was redacted in 450 BCE, with some slight changes in wording but not meaning. Among the scrolls recording each "book" of the Bible separately, only the Book of Esther did not survive the effects of time. This library also included many other, diverse religious texts, adding significant historical insights into various social and religious movements and events around the region.

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Ancient Rome: Later Works: Galen

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(129-199), provided a systematic theory of medicine, and Ptolemy (c 100-170) wrote a book to support the geocentric theory * prominent ancient Greek[2] physician, and probably the most accomplished medical researcher of the Roman period, whose theories dominated Western medical science for well over a millennium. The forename Claudius", absent in Greek texts, was first documented in texts from the Renaissance and was probably an erroneous interpretation of "Cl." which stood for "clarissimus". * Galen performed many audacious operations — including brain and eye surgeries — that were not tried again for almost two millennia. To perform cataract surgery, he would insert a long needle-like instrument into the eye behind the lens, then pull the instrument back slightly to remove the cataract. The slightest slip could have caused permanent blindness. •

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: Huns: Attila the Hun

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Leader of the Hunnic Empire which stretched from Germany to the Ural River and from the River Danube to the Baltic Sea (see map below). During his rule he was one of the most fearsome of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires' enemies: he invaded the Balkans twice, he marched through Gaul (modern France) as far as Orleans before being defeated at the Battle of Chalons. He refrained from attacking either Constantinople or Rome. His propaganda, that the Sword of Attila had come to his hand by miraculous means, was reported by the Roman Priscus. In much of Western Europe, he is remembered as the epitome of cruelty and rapacity. In contrast, some histories and Chronicles lionize him as a great and noble king, and he plays major roles in three Norse sagas.

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Ancient Rome: Augustus Caesar (Augustus, Octavian, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus)

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After almost a century of strife, the war-weary Romans looked to Octavian to restore order The young Octavius was adopted by his great uncle, Julius Caesar and came into his inheritance after Caesar's assassination in 44 BC The rule of Augustus initiated an era of relative peace known as the Pax Romana, or Roman peace. Despite continuous frontier wars, and one year-long civil war over the imperial succession, the Mediterranean world remained at peace for more than two centuries. It took several years to work out the exact framework by which a formally republican state could be led by a sole ruler, the result of which became known as the Roman Empire. * Augustus expanded the boundaries of the Roman Empire * Secured the Empire's borders with client states * Made peace with Parthia through diplomacy * Reformed the Roman system of taxation * Developed networks of roads with an official courier system * Established a standing army (and a small navy) * Established the Praetorian Guard * Created official police and fire-fighting forces for Rome. * Much of the city was rebuilt under Augustus; and he wrote a record of his own accomplishments, known as the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, which has survived. He established a civil service that was open to men of talent rather than birth, gave Rome its first police and fire departments, improved the roads, and sponsored a civic building program For all his deception and cunning, Augustus did institute much-needed reform, for the government of the Republic had been intended for a small agricultural community and was unable to administer an immense empire. Upon his death in AD 14, Augustus was declared a god by the Senate, to be worshipped by the Romans. His names Augustus and Caesar were adopted by every subsequent emperor, and the month of Sextilis was officially renamed August in his honour. He was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius. Cunning politician, Octavian assured the Romans that his only intention was to restore the Republic, and he maintained the outward forms of traditional government even as he worked behind the scenes to replace it with a political system that served his will alone 27bce: Senate bestowed on Octavian the title Augustus (“revered one”), but he said he preferred the title princes, the traditional republican term which meant “first citizen”. Also used the term “imperator” (one who held the power of imperium), from which the term “emperor” is derived Many of his measures were also better for the Roman people than the Senate had been In his published memoirs, Augustus boasted, “I found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble.” Although Augustus tried to reform Roman morals through laws that were intended to revive the sanctity of marriage and the centrality of the family, this effort was not successful Patronized three poets whose celebrated works represent the golden age of Roman literature: Virgil, Horace, Ovid Later: Germanic Invasions: sent 3 legions to subdue the Germans and add their territory to the growing empire, but the Roman forces were annihilated in 9ce by the German general Arminius

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Golden Age (43 bce – 14 ce): Horace

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Leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus. Generally considered by classicists to be one of the greatest Latin poets. He wrote many Latin phrases that remain in use (in Latin or in translation) including carpe diem, "seize the day"; Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori; and aurea mediocritas, the "golden mean." His works (like those of all but the earliest Latin poets) are written in Greek metres, from the hexameter, which was relatively easy to adapt to Latin, to the more complex measures used in the Odes, like alcaics and sapphics, which were sometimes a difficult fit for Latin structure and syntax. Member of a literary circle that included Virgil and Lucius Varius Rufus, who introduced him to Maecenas, friend and confidant of Augustus. Maecenas became his patron and close friend, and presented Horace with an estate near Tibur in the Sabine Hills, contemporary Tivoli. He died in Rome a few months after the death of Maecenas, in 8 BC at age 57. Upon his death bed, having no heirs, Horace relinquished his farm to his friend and Emperor Augustus, to be used for Imperial needs. His farm is there today and is a spot of pilgrimage for the literary elite.

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Ancient Rome: Jews in the Roman Empire: Roman Rule: Herod

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At first the Romans tried to rule Judea indirectly, through local kings such as Herod (37-4bce), but when this approach proved ineffective, they transformed the region from a client state to a province ruled directly by a Roman governor * Roman client king of Judaea.[1] Herod is known for his colossal building projects in Jerusalem and other parts of the ancient world, including the rebuilding of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, sometimes referred to as Herod's Temple. Some details of his biography can be gleaned from the works of the 1st century AD Roman-Jewish historian Josephus Flavius. In Christian scripture, Herod is known for the Massacre of the Innocents, described in Chapter 2 of the Gospel according to Matthew.[2] The Massacre of the Innocents is an episode of infanticide by Herod the Great that appears in the Gospel of Matthew (Matthew 2:16-18). It is not mentioned in the other gospels, nor does it figure in the early apocrypha, with the exception of the Protoevangelium of James 22.[1] Matthew relates that King Herod ordered the execution of all young male children in the village of Bethlehem, so as to avoid the loss of his throne to a newborn "King of the Jews" whose birth had been announced to him by the Magi. Currently there exists no historical or archaeological evidence of this event having actually happened aside from the account by Matthew. The Jewish historian Josephus (c. 37–c.100) who wrote about the period, makes no mention of this event, but does record Herod's cruelty in other incidents. Many scholars argue that the account was invented to glorify Jesus.[4] Other scholars, some of whom are cited below, defend the massacre as something that Herod was cruel enough to do and small enough to pass without remark outside the Gospel of Matthew. The Catholic Encyclopedia in 1910 argued that the Matthew Gospel account "is not contradicted by the mere silence of Josephus; for the latter follows Nicholas of Damascus, to whom, as a courtier, Herod was a hero." It also cited an 1897 book by A. J. Maas: "Cruel as the slaughter may appear to us, it disappears among the cruelties of Herod. It cannot, then, surprise us that history does not speak of it".

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Hadrian

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Emperor of Rome from 117 to 138 AD, as well as a Stoic and Epicurean philosopher A member of the gens Aelia, Hadrian was the third of the Five Good Emperors, or the second of the recently proposed ulpio-aelian dynasty.[2] His reign had a faltering beginning, a glorious middle, and a tragic conclusion.[3] During the 1st century of the Roman Empire, writers found that they could not afford to offend emperors who ruled with absolute power This limit on freedom of expression coincided with a general decline in Roman virtues, which led to a pervading sense of pessimism in lit from the reign of Tiberius (14-37 ce) to Hadrian (117-138ce)

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Silver Age: Juvenal

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(Satirists vented their frustration at the general decline in morals, most notably Persius, Petronius, and Juvenal) Roman poet active in the late 1st and early 2nd century AD, author of the Satires. The details of the author's life are unclear, although references within his text to known persons of the late 1st and early 2nd centuries AD fix his terminus post quem (earliest date of composition). In accord with the vitriolic manner of Lucilius – the originator of the genre of Roman satire – and within a poetic tradition that also included Horace and Persius, Juvenal wrote at least 16 poems in dactylic hexameter covering an encyclopedic range of topics across the Roman world. While the Satires are a vital source for the study of ancient Rome from a vast number of perspectives, their hyperbolic, comedic mode of expression makes the use of statements found within them as simple fact problematic, to say the least. At first glance the Satires could be read as a brutal critique of (Pagan) Rome, perhaps ensuring their survival in Christian monastic scriptoria, a bottleneck in preservation when the large majority of ancient texts were lost.

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: Angles, Saxons and Jutes: Jutes

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Germanic people who, according to Bede, were one of the three most powerful Germanic peoples of the time. They are believed to have originated from Jutland (called Iutum in Latin) in modern Denmark, Southern Schleswig (South Jutland) and part of the East Frisian coast. The Jutes, along with the Angles, Saxons, and small number of Frisians, were amongst the Germanic tribes who sailed across the North Sea to raid and eventually invade Great Britain from the late fourth century onwards, either displacing, absorbing, or destroying the native Celtic peoples there. According to Bede, they ended up settling in Kent (where they became known as the Cantuarii), Hampshire (in Wessex), and the Isle of Wight (where they became known as the Uictuarii). There are a number of toponyms that attest to the presence of the Jutes in the area, such as Ytene, which Florence of Worcester states was the contemporary English name for the New Forest.

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Ancient Rome: Justinian

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Eastern Roman Emperor from 527 until his death, and second member of the Justinian Dynasty, after his uncle Justin I. He is considered a saint amongst Eastern Orthodox Christians, is also commemorated by the Lutheran Church,[1] and is sometimes called the "Last Roman" in popular historiography.[2] One of the most important figures of Late Antiquity, Justinian's rule constitutes a distinct epoch in the history of the Byzantine Empire. The impact of his administration extended far beyond the boundaries of his time and empire. Justinian's reign is marked by the ambitious but ultimately failed renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the empire". This ambition was expressed in the partial recovery of the territories of the Western Roman Empire, including the city of Rome itself. Corpus Juris Civilis: A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis, which is still the basis of civil law in many modern states. It served as the law code for the Byzantine Empire until the 9th century, when a condensed versino known as the Basilica was issued in Greek Later, Justinian's Code served as a textbook during the revival of legal studies in western Europe. His reign also marked a blossoming of Byzantine culture, and his building program yielded such masterpieces as the church of Hagia Sophia, which was to be the center of Eastern Orthodox Christianity for many centuries. The devastating Plague of Justinian in the early 540s marked the end of an age of splendor. The empire entered a period of decline not to be reversed until the Ninth Century.

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Ancient Rome: Julian

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Roman Emperor (Caesar, November 355 to February 360; Augustus, February 360 to June 363) of the Constantinian dynasty. He was the last non-Christian Roman Emperor, and expended much energy during his reign attempting to supplant the growing power of Christianity within the empire with officially revived traditional Roman religious practices. He is known as Julian the Apostate, because of his rejection of Christianity in favor of neoplatonician paganism; Edward Gibbon wrote: The triumph of the party which he deserted and opposed has fixed a stain of infamy on the name of Julian; and the unsuccessful apostate has been overwhelmed with a torrent of pious invectives, of which the signal was given by the sonorous trumpet of Gregory Nazianzen.[2] In 363, Julian began a campaign against the Sassanid Empire. He died later that year from a wound received during a retreat during the campaign.

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Ancient Rome: Jugurthine War (Marius)

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The Jugurthine War clearly revealed the problems of the Republic at that time. The fact that a man such as Jugurtha could rise to power by buying Roman military and civil officials reflected a Roman moral and ethical decline. Romans now sought individual power often at the expense of the state, also displayed by Marius's rise to power by ignoring Roman traditions. These events were also observed by Marius's quaestor, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who later came to rival Marius in the first of the great civil wars of the Late Republic. The beginning of this rivalry, according to Plutarch, was purportedly Sulla's crucial role in the negotiations for and eventual capture of Jugurtha, which led to Sulla wearing a ring portraying the capture despite Marius being awarded the victory for it. The Roman historian Sallust wrote a monograph on the Jugurthine War emphasizing this decline of Roman ethics and placed it, along with his work on the Cataline Conspiracy, in the timeline of the degeneration of Rome that began with the Fall of Carthage and ended with that of the Republic. He is one of our most valuable sources on the war, along with Plutarch's biographies of Sulla and Marius.

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Monophysitism, (Council of Chalcedon, Jacobite Church)

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Claims that Jesus is divine, but not human Although persecuted, Monophysitism persisted in Egypt and Syria (as the Jacobite Church) Council of Chalcedon condemned Monophytism The Syriac Orthodox Church is an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox church based in the Middle East with members spread throughout the world. It parted ways with Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism over the Council of Chalcedon, which the Syriac Orthodox Church rejects. It is a major inheritor of Syriac Christianity and has Syriac, a dialect of Aramaic, as its official language. The church is led by the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch. Christological position that Christ has only one nature (divine), as opposed to the Chalcedonian position which holds that Christ has two natures, one divine and one human. Monophysitism and its antithesis, Nestorianism, were both hotly disputed and divisive competing tenets in the maturing Christian traditions during the first half of the fifth century; a tumultuous period being the last decades of the Western Empire, and marked by the political shift in all things to a center of gravity then located in the Eastern Roman empire, and particularly in Syria, the Levant, Egypt, and Anatolia, where Monophysitism was popular among the people.

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: Law: Twelve Tables

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450 BC: Among the earliest concessions was a written code of laws known as the Twelve Tables, published about 450 bce. In theory the patricians represented the rest of the citizens, know as plebeians (or plebes), but in practice the two classes were usually at odds. Over the course of centuries, the plebeians managed to expand their political rights, partly by threatening to withhold military service unless they received concessions. (They were also granted a People’s Tribune (a magistrate would could veto the Senate)) and the right to hold an assembly, which in 287 bce no longer needed the approval of the Senate to pass legislation) * The Law of the Twelve Tables (Lex Duodecim Tabularum, more informally simply Duodecim Tabulae) was the ancient legislation that stood at the foundation of Roman law * Formed the centerpiece of the constitution of the Roman Republic and the core of the mos maiorum. The Twelve Tables must be distinguished from the unrelated, much older "twelve shields" of King Numa Pompilius.

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Ancient Rome: Law: Theodosian Code

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The Codex Theodosianus (Book of Theodosius) was a compilation of the laws of the Roman Empire under the Christian emperors since 312. A commission was established by Theodosius II in 429[1] and the compilation was published in the eastern half of the Roman Empire in 438.[2] One year later, it was also introduced in the West by the emperor Valentinian III. The Code was written in Latin and incorporated the terms Constantinopolitana and Roma for Constantine's capital and for the original capital in Italy. It was also concerned with the imposition of orthodoxy - the Arian controversy was ongoing - within the Christian religion and contains 65 decrees directed at heretics.[4] The Code was somewhat ineffectual, and Roman law was organized further in the Corpus Juris Civilis during the reign of Justinian I.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Silver Age (14ce - 138 ce): Lucan

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Seneca: (c 4-65 ce): Stoic philosopher wrote tragedies and was executed by Nero, as was his nephew… Lucan (39-65 ce), who wrote the Pharsalia: depicts the civil war between Caesar and Pompey Roman poet, born in Corduba (modern-day Córdoba), in the Hispania Baetica. Despite his short life, he is regarded as one of the outstanding figures of the Silver Latin period. His youth and speed of composition set him apart from other poets. * He found success under Nero, became one of the emperor's close friends and was rewarded with a quaestorship in advance of the legal age. In 60 AD, he won a prize for extemporizing Orpheus and Laudes Neronis at the quinquennial Neronia, and was again rewarded when the emperor appointed him to the augurate. During this time he circulated the first three books of his epic poem, Pharsalia (labelled De Bello civili in the manuscripts), which told the story of the civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey. At some point, a feud began between Nero and Lucan. Two very different accounts of the events have survived that both trivialize the feud. According to Tacitus, Nero became jealous of Lucan and forbade him to publish his poems.[1] According to Suetonius, Nero lost interest in Lucan and Lucan responded by writing insulting poems about Nero that Nero continued to ignore.[2] Other works, though, point to a more serious basis to the feud. Works by the grammarian Vacca and the poet Statius may support the claim that Lucan wrote insulting poems about Nero. Vacca mentions that one of Lucan's works was entitled De Incendio Urbis (On the Burning of the City).[3] Statius' ode to Lucan mentions that Lucan described the "unspeakable flames of the criminal tyrant roamed the heights of Remus."[4] Additionally, the later books of Pharsalia, namely Book IX, are anti-Imperial and pro-Republic. This criticism of Nero and office of the Emperor may have been the true cause of the ban. Lucan later joined the 65 AD conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso against Nero. His treason discovered, he was obliged to commit suicide by opening a vein at the age of 25, but not before incriminating his mother, among others, in hopes of a pardon. According to Tacitus, as Lucan bled to death, "(he) recalled some poetry he had composed in which he had told the story of a wounded soldier dying a similar kind of death, and he recited the very lines.[5] These were his last words."

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Ancient Rome: Jews in the Roman Empire: Diaspora: Talmud

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Together the Mishnah and Gemara are known as the Talmud. The Gemara is the part of the Talmud that contains rabbinical commentaries and analysis of the Mishnah. * Record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs, and history. Central text of Rabbinic Judaism, second only to the Hebrew Bible in importance. The Talmud has two components: the Mishnah (c. 200 AD) the first written compendium of Judaism's Oral Law; and the Gemara (c. 500 AD), a discussion of the Mishnah and related Tannaitic writings that often ventures onto other subjects and expounds broadly on the Tanakh. The terms Talmud and Gemara are often used interchangeably. The Gemara is the basis for all codes of rabbinic law and is much quoted in other rabbinic literature. The whole Talmud is also traditionally referred to as Shas (?"?), a Hebrew abbreviation of shisha sedarim, the "six orders" of the Mishnah.

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Ancient Rome: Jews in the Roman Empire: Diaspora: Mishnah

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During the Diaspora, synagogues replaced the Temple as the center of worship, and Jewish culture endured in the Diaspora. Its theological development continued in the rabbinic schools, which established a comprehensive body of Jewish civil and religious law, known as the Mishnah, around 200 ce. Over the following centuries until about 600ce, the Mishnah received commentary known as the Gemara, of which there are two versions: one compiled in Palestine, the other in Babylonia – the Babylonian version became authoritative. Together the Mishnah and Gemara are known as the Talmud. This transformation of Judaism after the destruction of the Temple was also partly a reaction to an attempt to reform Judaism by a sect known as the Christians * Major work of Rabbinic Judaism, and the first major redaction into written form of Jewish oral traditions, called the Oral Torah. It was debated between 70-200 CE by the group of rabbinic sages known as the Tannaim[1] and redacted about 200 CE by Judah haNasi when, according to the Talmud, the persecution of the Jews and the passage of time raised the possibility that the details of the oral traditions would be forgotten. The oral traditions that are the subject of the Mishnah go back to earlier, Pharisaic times. [2] The Mishnah does not claim to be the development of new laws, but merely the collection of existing traditions. The Mishnah is considered to be the first important work of Rabbinic Judaism[3] and is a major source of later rabbinic religious thought. Rabbinic commentaries on the Mishnah over the next three centuries were redacted as the Gemara.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Golden Age (43 bce – 14 ce): Livy

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(The greatest prose author of the golden age was the historian Livy ( 59 bce-17ce)) * Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome, Ab Urbe Condita, from its founding (traditionally dated to 753 BC) through the reign of Augustus in Livy's own time.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Early Poetry and Drama: Lucretius

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Roman poet and philosopher. Only known work is the epic philosophical poem on Epicureanism De Rerum Natura, “On the Nature of Things”. * According to Lucretius's frequent statements in his poem, the main purpose of the work was to free Gaius Memmius's (and presumably all of mankind's) mind of superstition and the fear of death. He attempts this by expounding the philosophical system of Epicurus, whom Lucretius apotheosizes as the hero of his epic poem. Lucretius identifies superstition (religion in the Latin) with the notion that the gods/supernatural powers created our world or interfere with its operations in any way. He argues against fear of such gods by demonstrating through observations and logical argument that the operations of the world can be accounted for entirely in terms of natural phenomena -- the regular but purposeless motions and interactions of tiny atoms in empty space -- instead of in terms of the will of the gods. He argues against the fear of death by arguing that death is the dissipation of a being's material mind. Lucretius uses the analogy of a vessel, stating that the physical body is the vessel that holds both the mind (mens) and spirit (anima) of a human being. Neither the mind nor spirit can survive independent of the body. Thus Lucretius states that once the vessel (the body) shatters (dies) its contents (mind and spirit) can, logically, no longer exist. So, as a simple ceasing-to-be, death can be neither good nor bad for this being. Being completely devoid of sensation and thought, a dead person cannot miss being alive. According to Lucretius, fear of death is a projection of terrors experienced in life, of pain that only a living (intact) mind can feel. Lucretius also puts forward the 'symmetry argument' against the fear of death. In it, he says that people who fear the prospect of eternal non-existence after death should think back to the eternity of non-existence before their birth, which they probably do not fear.

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Ancient Rome: Jews in the Roman Empire: Rebellions: Masada

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(In 66 ce Judea erupted in a revolt that was bloodily suppressed after years of fighting; the last isolated Jewish fortress, Masada, was take in 73ce) * Name for a site of ancient palaces and fortifications in the South District of Israel on top of an isolated rock plateau, or large mesa, on the eastern edge of the Judean Desert overlooking the Dead Sea. Masada became famous after the First Jewish-Roman War (also known as the Great Jewish Revolt) when a siege of the fortress by troops of the Roman Empire may have led to a mass suicide of the site's Jewish Sicarii fugitives when defeat became imminent. Today, Masada is a very popular tourist destination.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Later Works: Martianus Capella

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Pagan writer of Late Antiquity, the founder of the trivium and quadrivium categories that structured Early Medieval education. According to Cassiodorus, Capella was a native of Madaura—which had been the native city of Apuleius—in the Roman province of Africa, and appears to have practiced as a jurist at Carthage. (Two influential encyclopedic writers were Macrobius (4th century) and Martianus Capella (5th century))

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Ancient Rome: Marcus Aurelius

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121-180 ce Roman Emperor from 161 to his death in 180. Was the last of the "Five Good Emperors", and is also considered one of the most important Stoic philosophers. After the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the Roman Empire faced a series of threats that nearly destroyed it. The barbarians breached the borders in eth north while a new Persian dynasty, the Sassanians, launche aggressive campaigns in the east. His tenure was marked by wars in Asia against a revitalized Parthian Empire, and with Germanic tribes along the Limes Germanicus into Gaul and across the Danube. A revolt in the East, led by Avidius Cassius, failed. For a period of about 200 years, from the reign of Augustus to the death of Marcus Aurelius, Rome enjoyed a period a stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, or “Roman peace”. (Foreign wars of conquest continued on the borders, but Rome was free of civil wars (with the exception of the year 68 ce, when four rivals claimed the imperial throne upon Nero’s death) “the Meditations”: “Meditations” The emperor Marcus Aurelias wrote an influential work of Stoic philosophy know as the Meditations. Marcus Aurelius' work Meditations, written in Greek while on campaign between 170 and 180, is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty and has been praised for its "exquisite accent and its infinite tenderness." Under Marcus' reign, the status of Christians remained the same since the time of Trajan. They were legally punishable, though in fact rarely persecuted. In 177 a group of Christians were executed at Lyon, for example, but the act is mainly attributable to the initiative of the local governor. (Germanic invasions: Relations between Romans and Germans consisted largely of peaceful trade, but toward the end of the second century ce Germanic tribes began to raid the provinces, forcing Marcus Aurelius to spend long years campaigning to protect the northern borders. Faced with shortages of manpower, he established a dangerous precedent by conducting alliances with some of the German tribes, know as feoderati (“federates”), who were allowed to settle within the borders of the empire in exchange for defending it against other Germanic tribes. Over time, more and more tribes became feoderati, and an increasing percentage of Roman legions were manned by German recruits, eventually with German generals commanding them. Entrusting the empire’s defense to allied barbarians was effective in the short term, but ultimately contributed to the decline of the empire)

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Ancient Rome: Religion: Gnosticism and Manichaeism: Gnosticism

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Diverse, syncretistic religious movement consisting of various belief systems generally united in the teaching that humans are divine souls trapped in a material world created by an imperfect god, the demiurge, who is frequently identified with the Abrahamic God: called "Yahweh" or "Jahveh" for the true name of God is the ineffable Tetragrammaton. The demiurge may be depicted as an embodiment of evil, or in other instances as merely imperfect and as benevolent as its inadequacy permits. This demiurge exists alongside another remote and unknowable supreme being that embodies good. In order to free oneself from the inferior material world, one needs gnosis, or esoteric spiritual knowledge available to all through direct experience or knowledge (gnosis) of God. Jesus of Nazareth is identified by some Gnostic sects as an embodiment of the supreme being who became incarnate to bring gnosis to the earth. In others he was thought to be a gnosis teacher, and yet others, nothing more than a man. Gnosticism was popular in the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern regions in the second and third centuries, though some scholars claim it was suppressed and was actually popular as early as the first century, predating Jesus Christ as a dualistic heresy in areas controlled by the Roman Empire when Christianity became its state religion in the fourth century. Conversion to Islam and the Albigensian Crusade greatly reduced the remaining number of Gnostics throughout the middle ages, though a few isolated communities continue to exist to the present. Gnostic ideas became influential in the philosophies of various esoteric mystical movements of the late 19th and 20th centuries in Europe and North America, including some that explicitly identify themselves as revivals or even continuations of earlier gnostic groups.

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Ancient Rome: Religion: Gnosticism and Manichaeism: Manichaeism

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One of the major Gnostic religions, originating in Sassanid Persia. Although most of the original writings of the founding prophet Mani (Syriac, ܡܐܢܝ, c. 210–276 AD) have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived. Manichaeism thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as China and as far west as the Roman empire. Manichaeism appears to have died out before the sixteenth century in southern China. Manichaean theology was dualistic. A key belief in Manichaeism is that there is no omnipotent good power[citation needed]. This addresses a theoretical part of the problem of evil by denying the infinite perfection of God and postulating two equal and opposite powers. The human person is seen as a battleground for these powers: the good part is the soul, which is composed of light, and the bad part is the body, composed of dark earth. The soul defines the person and is incorruptible, but it is under the domination of a foreign power, which addressed the practical part of the problem of evil. Humans are said to be able to be saved from this power (matter) if they come to know who they are and identify themselves with their soul. Following Mani's travels to the Kushan Empire (several religious paintings in Bamiyan are attributed to him) at the beginning of his proselytizing career, various Buddhist influences seem to have permeated Manichaeism: Buddhist influences were significant in the formation of Mani's religious thought. The transmigration of souls became a Manichaean belief, and the quadripartite structure of the Manichaean community, divided between male and female monks (the "elect") and lay followers (the "hearers") who supported them, appears to be based on that of the Buddhist sangha. (Richard Foltz, Religions of the Silk Road) In some Gnostic writings of the Death of Mani, Mani attains Parinirvana. The word "Buddha" is frequently used in Manichaean writings of later centuries according to the same work.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Later Works: Macrobius

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78r0 (Two influential encyclopedic writers were Macrobius (4th century) and Martianus Capella (5th century)) Roman grammarian and Neoplatonist philosopher who flourished during the reigns of Honorius and Arcadius (395–423). Saturnalia: The most important of his works is the Saturnalia, containing an account of the discussions held at the house of Vettius Praetextatus (c. 325-385) during the holiday of the Saturnalia.

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Ancient Rome: Jews in the Roman Empire: Roman Rule: Maccabees

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Led by the Hasmonean dynasty (the Maccabees), the Jews of Palestine rebelled against the Hellenistic rule of the Seleucids in 175-164bce and allied themselves with Rome in 161 and 134 bce. After winning their independence, they began to fight among themselves. * Jewish national liberation movement that fought for and won independence from Antiochus IV Epiphanes of the Hellenistic Seleucid dynasty, who was succeeded by his infant son Antiochus V Eupator. The Maccabees founded the Hasmonean royal dynasty and established Jewish independence in the Land of Israel for about one hundred years, from 164 BCE to 63 BCE.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Golden Age: Ovid

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(March 20, 43 BC – 17 AD) ! (wrote the Metamorphoses, which portrays myths of transformation in Greco-Roman mythology, and a long poem On the Art of Love, a manual for seduction) The Metamorphoses by the Roman poet Ovid is a narrative poem in fifteen books that describes the creation and history of the world. Completed in 8 AD, it has remained one of the most popular works of mythology, being the Classical work best known to medieval writers and thus having a great deal of influence on medieval poetry. * Roman poet known to the English-speaking world as Ovid who wrote on many topics, including love (he is the medieval magister amoris, "master of love"), abandoned women, and mythological transformations. Traditionally ranked alongside Virgil and Horace as one of the three canonical poets of Latin literature, Ovid was generally considered a great master of the elegiac couplet. His poetry, much imitated during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, had a decisive influence on European art and literature for centuries. Elegiac couplets are the meter of most of Ovid's works: the Amores, his two long erotodidactic poems (the Ars Amatoria and Remedia Amoris), his poem on the Roman calendar (the Fasti) the minor work Medicamina Faciei Femineae (on makeup) his fictional letters from mythological heroines (the Heroides or Epistulae Heroidum), and all the works written in his exile (five books of the Tristia, four of the Epistulae ex Ponto, and the long curse-poem Ibis). The two fragments of the lost tragedy Medea are in iambic trimeter and anapests, respectively; the Metamorphoses was written in dactylic hexameter. (Dactylic hexameter is the meter of Virgil's Aeneid and of Homer's epics.)

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: Gothic War

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! War fought in Italy and the adjoining regions of Dalmatia, Sardinia, Sicily and Corsica from 535 until 554 between the forces of the Eastern Roman Empire and the forces of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy. ! The war had its roots in the ambition of Roman Emperor Justinian to recover the provinces of the former Western Roman Empire, which had been lost to invading barbarian tribes during the previous century (see also Migration Period). The long duration of the conflict meant that by its end Italy was devastated and depopulated, and the Empire's resources depleted. It is commonly divided in two phases, the first (535-540) which ended with the fall of Ravenna and the apparent conquest of Italy by the Romans, and the second phase (540/541-553), where the Gothic resistance was reinvigorated under Totila and was put down only after long struggle by Narses, who also defeated the Frankish-Alamannic invasion of 554. However, various cities in northern Italy continued to hold out until the early 560s. Thus the victorious East Romans were unable to resist the invasion of the Lombards in 568, which led to the loss of large parts of the Italian peninsula.

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Nicene Creed

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! Series of (dogmatic?) statements which assert that Jesus, as the Son of God, is equal to the Father (these two persons are “consubstantial” and “coeternal”). We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is, seen and unseen. We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only son of God, eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, of one being with the Father. Through him all things were made. For us and for our salvation he came down from heaven: by the power of the Holy Spirit he became incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man. For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was buried. On the third day he rose again in accordance with the Scriptures; he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end. We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father [and the Son]. With the Father and the Son he is worshipped and glorified. He has spoken through the Prophets. We believe in one holy Catholic and Apostolic Church. We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. AMEN.

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Ancient Rome: Reorganization of the Empire: New Rome

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330: Constantine abandoned Rome – it had became a strategic and financial backwater Founded a new capital called Constantinople at a defensible position in the northeast of the Empire, upon the site of the ancient city of Byzantium at the entrance to the Black Sea ! Chose Byzantium because it would facilitate the defense of the unstable northern and eastern borders and set the capital in the more prosperous eastern provinces, where revenue could be raised more effectively ! Although the move was intended to strengthen the empire, it foreshadowed the decline of the city of Rome and the western empire in the following century

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Nestorianism

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The doctrine that Christ exists as two persons, the man Jesus and the divine Son of God, or Logos, rather than as two natures (True God and True Man) of one divine person. The doctrine is identified with Nestorius (c. 386–c. 451), Archbishop of Constantinople. This view of Christ was condemned at the Council of Ephesus in 431, and the conflict over this view led to the Nestorian schism, separating the Assyrian Church of the East from the Byzantine Church. (Council of Ephesus against)

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Ancient Rome: The Empire: Nero

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! Fifth and last Roman Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. ! was adopted by his great uncle Claudius to become heir to the throne. As Nero Claudius Caesar, he succeeded to the throne on October 13, 54, following Claudius' death. ! ruled from 54 to 68, focusing much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. ! In 68 a military coup drove Nero into hiding. Facing execution, he reportedly committed forced suicide. ! Some Charges Against Nero: Some of Nero's infamous acts that led to rebellion in the provinces included inflicting punishments on Christians (and blaming them for the devastating fire in Rome), sexual perversions, marauding and murdering Roman citizens, building the extravagant Golden House, charging citizens with treason to confiscate their property, murdering his mother and aunt, and causing (or at least performing while watching) the burning of Rome. married his own step sister. (At the time, this was not unusual.) He ordered the building of theatres and promoted athletic games. His reign included a successful war and negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire (58–63), the suppression of the British revolt (60–61) and improving relations with Greece. Nero's rule is often associated with tyranny and extravagance Known for a number of executions, including those of his mother and adoptive brother, as the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned", and as an early persecutor of Christians This view is based upon the main surviving sources for Nero's reign—Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light. Some sources, though, portray him as an emperor who was popular with the Roman people, especially in the East. The study of Nero is problematic as some modern historians question the reliability of ancient sources when reporting on Nero's alleged tyrannical acts. Nero's Career: Nero might have had a successful career as an entertainer, but that was not to be, at least officially. Under Claudius, Nero pleaded cases in the forum and was given opportunities to ingratiate himself with the Roman people. When Claudius died, Nero was 17. He presented himself to the palace guard who pronounced him emperor. Nero then went to the Senate which gave him the appropriate imperial titles. As emperor, Nero served as consul 4 times. Compassionate Elements of Nero's Reign: Nero reduced heavy taxes and reduced fees paid to informers. He gave salaries to impoverished senators. He introduced certain fire preventing and fire fighting innovations. Suetonius says Nero devised a method of forgery prevention and he replaced public banquets with grain distribution. His response to people criticizing his artistic skills was mild. He gained notoriety for inappropriately performing. It is said that as he died, Nero lamented that the world was losing an artist. Death of Nero: Nero committed suicide before he could be captured and flogged to death. Revolts in Gaul and Spain promised to bring Nero's reign to an end. Almost all his staff deserted him. Nero tried to kill himself, but required the assistance of his scribe Epaphrodite to stab himself in the neck. Nero died at the age of 32.

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Monophysitism

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Christological position that Christ has only one nature (divine), as opposed to the Chalcedonian position which holds that Christ has two natures, one divine and one human. Monophysitism and its antithesis, Nestorianism, were both hotly disputed and divisive competing tenets in the maturing Christian traditions during the first half of the fifth century; (Council of Chalcedon against)

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Ancient Rome: Religion: Mystery Cults: Mithraism

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* Roman mystery religion which became popular among the military in the late Roman Empire[1] (1st to 4th centuries CE). * Best attested in the cities of Rome and Ostia and in some of the Empire's provinces, specifically Mauretania, Britain and those along the Rhine and Danube frontier. * Religious practice was centered around the mithraeum (Latin, from Greek mithraion), either an adapted natural cave or cavern or an artificial building imitating a cavern. Mithraea were dark and windowless, even if they were not actually in a subterranean space or in a natural cave. When possible, the mithraeum was constructed within or below an existing building. * Initiatory order, passed from initiate to initiate, like the Eleusinian Mysteries. It was not based on a body of scripture, and hence very little written documentary evidence survives. Soldiers and the lower nobility appeared to be the most plentiful followers of Mithraism. Until recently, women were generally thought to not have been allowed to join, but it has now been suggested that women were involved with Mithraic groups in at least some locations of the empire." Recently revealed discrepancies such as these suggest that Mithraic beliefs were (contra the older supposition) not internally consistent and monolithic,cf. but rather, varied from location to location. Mithraic ranks: The members of a mithraeum were divided into seven ranks. All members were expected to progress through the first four ranks, while only a few would go on to the three higher ranks. The first four ranks represent spiritual progress—the new initiate became a Corax, while the Leo was an adept—the other three have been specialized offices. The seven ranks were: •

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Later Works: Ptolemy

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(Two highly influential scientific authorities appeared during the second century: Galen (129-199) provided a systematic theory of medicine, and Ptolemy (100-170) wrote a book of astronomy known as the Almagest, which offered mathematical proofs to support the geocentric theory.) ! ancient mathematician, geographer, astronomer, and astrologer. He lived in Roman Egypt, and was probably born there in a town in the Thebaid called Ptolemais Hermiou; he died in Alexandria around 168 AD.[1] Ptolemy was the author of several scientific treatises, three of which would be of continuing importance to later Islamic and Europeanscience. 1. Astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest (in Greek, Η Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, "The Great Treatise", originally Μαθηματικἠ Σύνταξις, "Mathematical Treatise"). Only surviving comprehensive ancient treatise on astronomy 2. Geography, which is a thorough discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. Compilation of what was known about the world's geography in the Roman Empire during his time. 3. Astrological treatise known as the Tetrabiblos ("Four books") in which he attempted to adapthoroscopic astrology to the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day. The most popular astrological work of antiquity and also enjoyed great influence in theIslamic world and the medieval Latin West. The Tetrabiblos is an extensive and continually reprinted treatise on the ancient principles ofhoroscopic astrology in four books

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Ancient Rome: Religion: Neoplatonism: Proclus

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Surnamed "The Successor" or "diadochos" (Greek Πρόκλος ὁ Διάδοχος Próklos ho Diádokhos), was a Greek Neoplatonist philosopher, one of the last major Classical philosophers (see Damascius) Set forth one of the most elaborate and fully developed systems of Neoplatonism. He stands near the end of the classical development of philosophy, and was very influential on Western Medieval Philosophy (Greek and Latin) as well as Islamic thought. The majority of Proclus' works are commentaries on dialogues of Plato (Alcibiades, Cratylus, Parmenides, Republic, Timaeus). In these commentaries he presents his own philosophical system as a faithful interpretation of Plato, and in this he did not differ from other Neoplatonists, as he considered the Platonic texts to be divinely inspired (ho theios Platon -- The divine Plato), and to speak often of things under a veil, hiding the truth from the philosophically uninitiate. In this work, Proclus also listed the first mathematicians associated with Plato: a mature set of mathematicians (Leodamas of Thasos, Archytas of Taras, and Theaetetus), a second set of younger mathematicians (Neoclides, Eudoxus of Cnidus), and a third yet younger set (Amyntas, Menaechmus and his brother Dinostratus, Theudius of Magnesia, Hermotimus of Colophon and Philip of Opus). Some of these mathematicians were influential in arranging the Elements, that Euclid later published. In addition to his commentaries, Proclus wrote two major systematic works. The Elements of Theology, which consists of 211 propositions, each followed by a proof, beginning from the existence of the One (the first principle of all things) and ending with the descent of individual souls into the material world. The Platonic Theology is a systematisation of material from Platonic dialogues, showing from them the characteristics of the divine orders, the part of the universe which is closest to the One.

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Ancient Rome: Religion: Neoplatonism: Porphyry

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The Neoplatonism of Plotinus and Porphyry has been referred to as really being orthodox (neo)Platonic philosophy by scholars like Professor John D. Turner. This distinction provides a contrast with later movements of Neoplatonism, such as those of Iamblichus and Proclus. Movements which embraced magical practices or theurgy as part of the soul's development in the process of the soul's return to the Source. This could also be due to one possible motive of Plotinus, being to clarify some of the traditions in the teachings of Plato that had been misrepresented before Iamblichus (see Neoplatonism and Gnosticism). ! important in the history of mathematics because of his Life of Pythagoras and his commentary on Euclid's Elements, used by Pappus when he wrote his own commentary. ”Introduction”: Porphyry's Isagoge, or "Introduction" to Aristotle's "Categories", in Latin translation, was the standard textbook on logic for at least a millennium after his death (Barnes 2003). Especially appreciated for his Introduction to Categories (Introductio in Praedicamenta), a very short work often considered to be a commentary on Aristotle's Categories, hence the title.

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Ancient Rome: Religion: Ancestor Worship and State Religion: Pontifex Maximus

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The office of chief priest, or Pontifex Maximus, was held at one time by Julius Caesar and was later adopted by the emperors The Cult of Emperor arose as an expression of patriotism * High priest of the Ancient Roman College of Pontiffs. Most important position in the Ancient Roman religion, open only to patricians until 254 BC, when a plebeian first occupied this post. A distinctly religious office under the early Roman Republic, it gradually became politicized until, beginning with Augustus, it was subsumed into the Imperial office. Its last use with reference to the emperors is in inscriptions of Gratian, Emperor from 375 to 383, who, however, then decided to omit the words "pontifex maximus" from his title. The highest office in the polytheistic Roman religion, which was very much a state cult. The most important of the Pontifices (plural of Pontifex), in the main sacred college (Collegium Pontificum) which he directed. Not simply a priest - had both political and religious authority. It is not clear which of the two came first or had the most importance. In practice, particularly during the late Republic, the office of Pontifex Maximus was generally held by a member of a politically prominent family. It was a coveted position mainly for the great prestige it confers on the holder; Julius Caesar became pontifex in 73 BC and pontifex maximus in 63 BC. Being Pontifex Maximus was not a full-time job and did not preclude the office-holder from holding a secular magistracy or serving in the military.

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: The First Triumvirate: Pompey

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! Pompey was a rival of Marcus Licinius Crassus and at first an ally to Gaius Julius Caesar. ! The three politicians dominated the Late Roman republic through a political alliance called the First Triumvirate. ! After the death of Crassus (as well as Pompey's wife and Julius Caesar's only child Julia), Pompey and Caesar became rivals, disputing the leadership of the Roman state in what is now called Caesar's civil war, an episode in the larger Roman Revolution which saw the death of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Emperors of Rome. ! Fought on the side of t he Optimates, Lost to Caesar (Crossing the Rubicon, etc) ! Assassinated in Egypt ! Distinguished military and political leader of the late Roman Republic. ! Hailing from an Italian provincial background, after military triumphs he established a place for himself in the ranks of Roman nobility, and was given the cognomen of Magnus—the Great—by Lucius Cornelius Sulla. To the historians of his own and later Roman periods, the life of Pompey was simply too good to be true. No more satisfying historical model existed than the great man who, achieving extraordinary triumphs through his own efforts yet fell from power and influence and, in the end, was murdered through treachery. He was a hero of the Republic, who seemed once to hold the Roman world in his palm only to be brought low by his own poor judgment and Caesar. Pompey was idealized as a tragic hero almost immediately after Pharsalus and his murder: Plutarch portrayed him as a Roman Alexander the Great, pure of heart and mind, destroyed by the cynical ambitions of those around him.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Latin Poetry: Special Features of Classical Latin Poetry: Caesura

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A caesura occurs anytime a word ends in the middle of the foot; however, the caesura is typically metrically significant when it occurs near the middle of the line and correlates with a break of sense in the line, such as a punctuation mark. The caesura divides the line in two and allows the poet to vary the basic metrical pattern he is working with. When a caesura correlates with a sense break, a person speaking the poetry should make a slight pause at the caesura.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Latin Poetry: Special Features of Classical Latin Poetry: Elision

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Elision occurs when the following two conditions are satisfied: 1. A word ends in a vowel, diphthong, or the letter "m". 2. The next word begins with a vowel, diphthong, or the letter "h". When this occurs, the first word loses the vowel or diphthong if it ends in a vowel or diphthong; if it ends in "m", it loses the "m" and the vowel immediately preceding it. This elided syllable is often marked by placing it in parenthesis and drawing a curved line from the bottom of the syllable to the bottom of the next syllable. The elided syllable is not counted when scanning the line. Sometimes a syllable does not elide even if it meets the above condition. The lack of elision is called hiatus. See the examples below.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Latin Poetry: Special Features of Classical Latin Poetry: Heavy and light syllables

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Classical Latin poetry differs from English poetry in that Latin meter is based upon vowel length rather than stress. In Latin, syllables are either heavy (long) or light (short). A light syllable has a short vowel followed by at most one consonant. Heavy syllables are either those that have a nucleus consisting of a long vowel or a diphthong (then traditionally called long by nature), or those that have a short vowel but which is followed by multiple consonants (or by one of the double consonants, x and z) (long by position). The consonants in the next word may count toward making a syllable long by position. Certain combinations of two consonants can make a syllable long or short, at the discretion of the poet. These are the so called muta cum liquida, namely those starting with a stop (p, b, t, d, c or g) and ending with a liquid (l or r). However, they can only count as a single consonant if they belong to the same word.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Latin Poetry

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Latin poetry was a major part of Latin literature during the height of the Latin language. During Latin literature's Golden Age, most of the great literature was written in poetry, including works by Virgil, Catullus, and Horace. A number of meters are used in Classical Latin poetry, almost all inspired by Greek originals; the most common is dactylic hexameter, followed by elegiac couplets and hendecasyllabics. Many Roman poets were particularly inspired by the Hellenistic style of poetry practiced at Alexandria.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Early Poetry and Drama: Plautus

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The early Romans were generally not deep thinkers; they had little interest in tragedy, but greatly enjoyed comedy, which was mastered by: Plautus (254-184 bce), Terence (190-159 bce) Their works influenced generations of later playwrights, including Shakespeare * Roman playwright. His comedies are among the earliest surviving intact works in Latin literature. He is also one of the earliest pioneers of musical theater. The word Plautine is used to refer to Plautus's works or works similar to or influenced by his.

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Ancient Rome: Jews in the Roman Empire: Roman Rule: Pharisees

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Jewish society under Roman occupation was deeply divided – 4 major groups: Pharisees: resisted assimilation into Greco-Roman culture by adhering carefully to Mosaic Law Essenes: fled the wilderness and lived a kind of isolated monastic lifestyle Zealots: violently opposed the occupation Sadducees: collaborated with the Roman occupation The Pharisees were, depending on the time, a political party, a social movement, and a school of thought among Jews that flourished during the Second Temple Era (536 BC-70 AD). After the destruction of the Second Temple, the Pharisaic sect was re-established as Rabbinic Judaism which ultimately produced normative, traditional Judaism, the basis for all contemporary forms of Judaism and even the Karaites use the Rabbinic canon of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh. The Pharisees were one of at least four major schools of thought within the Jewish religion around the first century and were most prominently in opposition to the Sadducee sect. They were also one of several successor groups of the Hasidim (the "pious"), an anti-Hellenistic Jewish movement that formed in the time of the Seleucid king, Antiochus Epiphanes (175–163 BC). (This group is distinct from the Hasidism established in 18th century Europe.) The social standing and beliefs of the Pharisees changed over time, such that the role, significance, and meaning of the Pharisees evolved as political and social conditions in Judea changed. The sages of the Talmud see a direct link between themselves and the Pharisees, and historians generally consider Pharisaic Judaism to be the progenitor of Rabbinic Judaism, that is normative, mainstream Judaism after the destruction of the Second Temple.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Silver Age (14 –c. 138 ce): Satyricon

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! Latin work of fiction in a mixture of prose and poetry. It is believed to have been written by Gaius Petronius, though the manuscript tradition identifies the author as a certain Titus Petronius. ! As with the Metamorphoses of Apuleius, classical scholars often describe it as a "Roman novel", without necessarily implying continuity with the modern literary form. The surviving portions of the text detail the misadventures of the narrator, Encolpius, and his lover, a handsome sixteen year old boy named Giton. Throughout the novel, Encolpius has a hard time keeping his lover faithful to him as he is constantly being enticed away by others. Encolpius' friend Ascyltus (who seems to have previously been in a relationship with Encolpius) is another major character. It is a rare example of a Roman novel, the only other surviving example (quite different in style and plot) being Metamorphoses written by Lucius Apuleius. It is also extremely important evidence for the reconstruction of what everyday life must have been like for the lower classes during the early Roman Empire.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Silver Age (14 –c. 138 ce): Petronius

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(…Satirists vented their frustration at the general decline in morals, most notably Persius, Petronius and Juvenal) Roman writer of the Neronian age; he was a noted satirist. He is identified with Gaius Petronius Arbiter, but the manuscript text of the Satyricon calls him Titus Petronius. * “Satyricon”: generally thought to be the same Petronius who is named in manuscripts as author of the Satyricon, a fragmentary novel in Latin describing the adventures of a homosexual pair, Encolpius and Giton. The work itself reveals nothing directly of Petronius' fortunes, position, or even century, so the identification of the author with Nero's courtier must remain speculative.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Silver Age (14 –c. 138 ce): Persius

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! Roman poet and satirist of Etruscan origin. In his works, poems and satires, he shows a stoic wisdom and a strong criticism for the abuses of his contemporaries. ! His works, which became very popular in the Middle Ages, were published after his death by his friend and mentor the stoic philosopher Lucius Annaeus Cornutus. ! The chief interest of Persius's work lies in its relation to Roman satire, in its interpretation of Roman Stoicism, and in its use of the Latin tongue. Persius's satires are composed in hexameters, except for the scazons of the short prologue above referred to, in which he half ironically asserts that he writes to earn his bread, not because he is inspired. The first satire censures the literary tastes of the day as a reflection of the decadence of the national morals. The Life tells us that the Satires were not left complete; some lines were taken (presumably by Cornutus or Bassus) from the end of the work so that it might be quasi finitus.

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Ancient Rome: Architecture: Pantheon

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! Building in Rome which was originally built as a temple to all the gods of Ancient Rome, and rebuilt circa 125 AD during Hadrian's reign. The intended degree of inclusiveness of this dedication is debated. (built in Rome between 118 and 128 ce) ! The generic term pantheon is now applied to a monument in which illustrious dead are buried. ! It is the best preserved of all Roman buildings, and perhaps the best preserved building of its age in the world. It has been in continuous use throughout its history. ! Since the 7th century, the Pantheon has been used as a Catholic church. The Pantheon is currently the oldest standing domed structure in Rome. The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, 43.3 metres (142 ft). The design of the extant building is sometimes credited to the Trajan's architect Apollodorus of Damascus, but it is equally likely that the building and the design should be credited to the emperor Hadrian or his architects.

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: The Last Roman Emperor in the West: Romulus Agustulus

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Western Roman Emperor who reigned from 31 October 475 to 4 September 476. His deposition in 476 is used to mark the end of the Western Roman Empire, the fall of ancient Rome, and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe.

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: Unrest: Third Servile War

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! Also called the Gladiator War and The War of Spartacus by Plutarch, was the last of a series of unrelated and unsuccessful slave rebellions against the Roman Republic, known collectively as the Servile Wars. ! Only one to directly threaten the Roman heartland of Italia and was doubly alarming to the Roman people due to the repeated successes of the rapidly growing band of rebel slaves against the Roman army between 73 and 71 BC. ! Was finally crushed through the concentrated military effort of a single commander, Marcus Licinius Crassus, although the rebellion continued to have indirect effects on Roman politics for years to come. Pompey, Crassus : The Third Servile War was significant to the broader history of ancient Rome mostly in its effect on the careers of Pompey and Crassus. The two generals used their success in putting down the rebellion to further their political careers, using their public acclaim and the implied threat of their legions to sway the consular elections of 70 BC in their favor. ! Their actions as Consuls greatly furthered the subversion of Roman political institutions and contributed to the eventual transition of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. Between 73 and 71 BC, a band of escaped slaves, originally a small cadre of about 70 escaped gladiators which grew into a band of over 120,000 men, women and children, wandered throughout and raided Italy with relative impunity under the guidance of several leaders, including the famous gladiator-general Spartacus. The able-bodied adults of this band were a surprisingly effective armed force that repeatedly showed they could withstand the Roman military, from the local Campanian patrols, to the Roman militia, and to trained Roman legions under consular command. Plutarch described the actions of the slaves as an attempt by Roman slaves to escape their masters and flee through Cisalpine Gaul, while Appian and Florus depicted the revolt as a civil war in which the slaves waged a campaign to capture the city of Rome itself. The Roman Senate's growing alarm about the continued military successes of this band, and about their depredations against Roman towns and the countryside, eventually led to Rome's fielding of an army of eight legions under the harsh but effective leadership of Marcus Licinius Crassus. The war ended in 71 BC when the armies of Spartacus, after long and bitter fighting, retreating before the legions of Crassus, and realizing that the legions of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus were moving in to entrap them, launched their full strength against Crassus' legions and were utterly destroyed.

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Ancient Rome: The Republic: Unrest: Spartacus

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According to Roman historians, was a slave who became the leader (or possibly one of several leaders) in the unsuccessful slave uprising against the Roman Republic known as the Third Servile War. Little is known about Spartacus beyond the events of the war, and the surviving historical accounts are inaccurate and often contradictory. Spartacus's struggle, often seen as the fight for an oppressed people fighting for their freedom against a slave-owning aristocracy, has found new meaning for modern writers since the 19th century. The figure of Spartacus, and his rebellion, has become an inspiration to many modern literary and political writers, who have made the character of Spartacus an ancient/modern folk hero.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Silver Age (14 –c. 138 ce): Seneca

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Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work humorist, of the Silver Age of Latin literature. ! Tutor and later advisor to emperor Nero. ! While his ideas are not considered to be original, he was important in making the Greek philosophers presentable and intelligible In the first years of Nero's reign Seneca was virtual ruler with Afranius Burrus, and their influence on the emperor was probably for the best. But the ascendancy of Poppaea, Nero's wife, brought about first the death of Agrippina (A.D. 59), then that of Burrus (A.D. 62). Seneca asked to retire. He had amassed a huge fortune and wanted no more of court life. Accusations of conspiracy were finally leveled at Seneca, who, instructed to commit suicide, slashed his veins. His death scene was considered remarkably noble by the Romans. Seneca was a Stoic, and his writings show a high, unselfish nobility considerably at variance with his own life, in which greed, expediency, and even connivance at murder figured. * remains one of the few popular Roman philosophers from the period. His works were celebrated by Ralph Waldo Emerson, John of Salisbury, Erasmus and others. Montaigne was considered to be a "French Seneca" by Pasquier.

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Ancient Rome: Germanic Invasions: Saxons

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( By 410 the Romans had pulled all their legions from Britain in order to defend the provinces on the Continent. For protection against the Picts (ancient inhabitants of Scotland), the Britons asked for help from Germanic tribes, who then turned against the Britons, forcing them into Wales and occupying most of the island The 3 principle tribes were the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who over time became one people The region of Britain occupied by the invaders was named England after the Angles, predominated. Unlike the Visigoths and Vandals, the Germanic invaders of Britain were pagan, not Christian ) ! Saxons, along with Angles, Jutes, Frisians and possibly Franks, invaded or migrated to the island of Great Britain (Britannia) around the time of the collapse of Roman authority in the west. Saxon raiders had been harassing the eastern and southern shores of Britannia for centuries before, prompting the construction of a string of coastal forts called the litora Saxonica o rSaxon Shore, and many Saxons and other folk had been permitted to settle in these areas as farmers long before the end of Roman rule in Britannia. In 449, however, following a particularly devastating raid in the north from the Picts and their allies, the Romano-British administration invited two Jutish warlords — traditionally cited as Hengist and Horsa — to occupy the isle of Thanet in north Kent and to act as mercenaries against the Picts at sea. After the Jutes had completed this mission defeating the Picts, they returned with demands for more lands. When this was rejected, they rose in revolt and provoked an insurrection amongst all the settled farming folk of Germanic stock with them.

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Leadership of the Church: St. Peter

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* Apostle designated by Jesus as leader of the Church * The bishops of Rome claimed to be the successors of St. Peter, the Apostle designated by Jesus as leader of the Church, who according to tradition was the first bishop of Rome, martyred during the persecutions of Nero in 64 ce. * Galilean fisherman assigned a leadership role by Jesus * His memoirs are traditionally cited as the source of the Gospel of Mark. * Was with Jesus during events witnessed by only a few apostles, such as the Transfiguration. One of the Twelve Apostles, chosen by Jesus as one of his first disciples. Life is prominently featured in the New Testament Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. Early Christian writers provided more details about his life and asserted his primacy. Tradition describes him as the first bishop of Rome, the author of two canonical epistles, and a martyr under Nero, crucified head down and buried in Rome. Roman Catholics regard the Pope as Peter's successor and therefore the rightful superior of all other bishops. The Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Anglican Communion consider Simon Peter a saint.

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Ancient Rome: Christianity: Early Preaching: St. Paul

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(ca 5 - 67CE) (Saul of Tarsus, Paul the Apostle, Apostle to the Gentiles) ! together with Saint Peter and James the Just, the most notable of early Christian missionaries ! Most instrumental missionary was Saul of Tarsus, better known as St. Paul, who regularly traveled the eastern Mediterranean as far as Rome preaching, converting, and guiding the fledgling Christian communities his letters of advice and reprimand. ! Regarded as the first Christian theologian ! Helped write Epistles: Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more significant than any other New Testament author ! Unlike the Twelve Apostles, there is no indication that Paul ever met Jesus before the latter's crucifixion. ! According to Acts of the Apostles, his conversion took place (although 'conversion' is an incorrect concept since the early Christians were viewed as members of a sect of Judaism not as members of a different religion) as he was traveling the road to Damascus, he was struck by lightening off his horse and experienced a vision of the resurrected Jesus. He was temporarily blinded. Paul asserts that he received the Gospel not from man, but by "the revelation of Jesus Christ". ! Fourteen epistles in the New Testament are traditionally attributed to Paul, though in some cases the authorship is disputed. Paul had often employed an amanuensis, only occasionally writing himself

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Ancient Rome: Jews in the Roman Empire: Sadduccees

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! members of a Jewish sect founded in the second century BC, possibly as a political party. They ceased to exist sometime after the first century AD. ! A priestly and aristocratic group, the Sadducees owed their power to political alliance with the Romans, who ruled their land. ! Opposed the Pharisees' use of Oral Law and held only to the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Old Testament). They also differed with the Pharisees on many theological tenets: for example, they did not believe in resurrection and the immortality of the soul. According to the New Testament, the Sadducees played a leading role in the trial and condemnation of Jesus. (Jewish society under Roman occupation was deeply divided – 4 major groups: Sadducees: collaborated with the Roman occupation Zealots: violently opposed the occupation Pharisees: resisted assimilation into Greco-Roman culture by adhering carefully to Mosaic Law Essenes: fled the wilderness and lived a kind of isolated monastic lifestyle)

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Silver Age (14 –c. 138 ce): Tiberius

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( During the first century of the Roman empire, writers found that they could not afford to offend emperors who ruled with absolute power – this limit on freedom of expression coincided with a general decline in Roman virtues, which led to a pervading sense of pessimism in literature from the reign of Tiberius (14-37 ce) to Hadrian (117-138 ce) )

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Ancient Rome: Law: Theodosius II

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A commission was established by Theodosius II in 429[1] and the compilation was published in the eastern half of the Roman Empire in 438.[2] One year later, it was also introduced in the West by the emperor Valentinian III. * Byzantine Emperor(reign 408-450), mostly known for the law code bearing his name, the Codex Theodosianus, and the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople(modern-day Istanbul) built during his reign.

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Ancient Rome: Theodosius

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Emperor from 379 to 395 * Reuniting the eastern and western portions of the empire, Theodosius was the last emperor of both the Eastern and Western Roman Empire. " Theodosius I pacified the Vsigoths, permitting them to settle peacefully in the Balkans and providing them with food and revenue in return for their loyalty and military backing. * After his death, the two parts split permanently. * Known for making Nicene Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire ! (Thus Ambrose demonstrated the psychological power of the Church and at the same time established that Christian statesmen are not free to ignore the moral injunctions of Christianity for the sake of political expediency) It is worth noting that in 390 Ambrose had excommunicated Theodosius, who had recently ordered the massacre of 7,000 inhabitants of Thessalonica, in response to the assassination of his military governor stationed in the city, and that Theodosius performed several months of public penance. The specifics of the decrees were superficially limited in scope, specific measures in response to various petitions from Christians throughout his administration

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Early Poetry and Drama: Terence

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( The early Romans were generally not deep thinkers, they had little interest in tragedy, but greatly enjoyed comedy, which was mastered by: Terence (190-159 bce), Plautus (254-184 bce) ) ! Playwright of the Roman Republic. ! His comedies were performed for the first time around 170-160 BC, and he died young probably in Greece or on his way back to Rome. ! Terentius Lucanus, a Roman senator, brought Terence to Rome as a slave, educated him and later on, impressed by his abilities, freed him. ! All of the six plays Terence wrote have survived (by comparison, his predecessor Plautus wrote twenty-one extant plays). One famous quote by Terence reads: "Homo sum, humani nil a me alienum puto", or "I am a man, I consider nothing that is human alien to me." This appeared in his play Heauton Timorumenos.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Silver Age (14 –c. 138 ce): Tacitus

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! ( In the “Germania” the historian Tacitus (55-117ce) deplores the decline of Roman character while ironically praising the heroic simplicity of the barbarians ) ! Senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. ! Author writing in the latter part of the Silver Age of Latin literature, his work is distinguished by a boldness and sharpness of wit, and a compact and sometimes unconventional use of Latin. The surviving portions of his two major works "the Annals" and "the Histories" examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those that reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors. These two works span the history of the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus in 14 AD to (presumably) the death of emperor Domitian in 96 AD. There are significant lacunae in the surviving texts. Other works by Tacitus discuss oratory (in dialogue format, see Dialogus de oratoribus), Germania (in De origine et situ Germanorum), and biographical notes about his father-in-law Agricola, primarily during his campaign in Britannia (see De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae).

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Ancient Rome: Jews in the Roman Empire: Roman Rule: Zealots

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! Movement in first century Judaism, described by Josephus as one of the "four sects" at this time. ! The term Zealot, in Hebrew kanai means one who is zealous on behalf of God. The term derives from Greek emulator, zealous admirer or follower. ! * Jewish political movement in the 1st century which sought to incite the people of Iudaea Province to rebel against the Roman Empire and expel it from the country by force of arms during the Great Jewish Revolt (AD 66-70). ! When the Romans introduced the imperial cult, the Jews unsuccessfully rebelled. The Zealots continued to oppose the Romans due to Rome's intolerance of their culture and on the grounds that Israel belonged only to a Jewish king descended from King David.

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Ancient Rome: The Late Empire: Doctors of the Church: Vulgate

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! Early Fifth Century version of the Bible in Latin, and largely the result of the labours of Jerome, who was commissioned by Pope Damasus I in 382 to make a revision of old Latin translations. ! Its Old Testament is the first Latin version translated directly from the Hebrew Tanakh, rather than the Greek Septuagint. ! It became the definitive and officially promulgated Latin version of the Bible of the Roman Catholic Church. ! In the 13th century it came to be called versio vulgata, which means “the published translation”. ! There are 76books in the Clementine edition of the Vulgate Bible: 46 in the Old Testament, 27 in the New Testament, and three in the Apocrypha.

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Ancient Rome: Literature: Virgil

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! Classical Roman poet. He was the author of epics in three modes * The Bucolics (or Eclogues) * The Georgics * The substantially completed Aeneid, the last being an epic poem in the heroic mode, which comprised twelve books (as opposed to 24 in each of the epic poems by Homer) and became the Roman Empire's national epic. Augustus Caesar patronized three poets whose celebrated works represent the golden age of Roman literature. The most famous of them was Virgil (70-19 BCE), whose Aeneid (modeled on Homer's epics) describes the legendary foundation of the Roman state by the fugitive Trojan prince, Aeneas.