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30 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what factors influence work behaviour |
Context factors Personal attributes |
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What are the three conceptual approaches to performance management |
1. Prescriptive (used more by practitioners in literature and unitarist approach) 2. Descriptive (used more by academics) 3. Critical |
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What is a unitarist approach to hrm? |
Assumes that employee goals are identical with managerial goals |
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What is performance |
There are different conceptions of performance depending on the stakeholder |
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What are the Inter-connected systems HRM practices |
assume a balancing act between staffing, developing, performance management and rewarding. |
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What is a systems perspective? |
Inputs (competencies), Processes (effort) and outputs (results) at an individual level, team level and organisational level. |
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What is the mainstream performance management philosophy? |
People: Are the most expensive resource need to control and monitor machines to be rate set need direction (separation of planning and execution of work functions) |
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Why is it necessary to manage employee performance at all? |
Strategic communication (role clarity) Relationship building (team spirit) Employee development (competency) Employee evaluation (accountability) |
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What is the mainstream fundamentals of effective performance management |
Validity (construct, content and criterion) Reliability Cost Effectiveness Fairness (procedural and distributive) Is it all about measurement?? |
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What is involved in the psychology of work behaviour |
HRM practices Psychological contract Attitudes Work group identity Behaviour Results |
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What affects workplace performance |
1. work attitudes 2. Work behaviours 3. the psychological contract 4. Organisational justice 5. Social aspects of work behaviour (teams, others at work) |
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What are work behaviours |
Work behaviours are physical and or verbal actions by individuals that are observable, measurable and causally linked to desired performance (positively or negatively) |
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what are the three key work behaviours? |
Membership behaviour Task behaviour Organisational citizen behaviour |
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What is membership behaviour |
it is the most basic of the three key work behaviours. Membership behaviour is demonstrated when an employee decides to join and remain with an organisation. Characteristics include: - low absenteeism, - low staff turn over - high level of outsider interest in being recruited to the organisation - longer internal job tenure High levels of staff attraction and retention DRAWBACK - not all orgs interested in retaining the same employees -- it can cause too little turnover and be organisationally disastrous - too much old blood and not enough new. |
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What is task behaviour |
Task behaviour occurs when employees perform specific work tasks that have been assigned to them and which form part of the organisation's core work activities. Key signifier is work effort - actions employees take to complete assigned tasks. Task behaviour has to do with compliance with the formal requirement of the job role to which the employee is assigned. Characteristic: Increased work effort. |
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What is organisational citizenship behaviour? |
Org Cit behaviour occurs when employees voluntarily and altruistically undertake special actions that exceed membership and task compliance. This might involve extra effort, high cooperation with other, high initiative, high innovativeness, extra customer service and general willingness to make sacrifices for the good of the organisation. Characteristics: - Volunteering to carry out task activities not formally part of the job (i.e. discretionary effort) - Persisting with extra enthusiasm or effort to complete ones own task activities. - Helping and cooperating - Showing initiative/being innovative - Endorsing, supporting and defending organisational objectives. Drawback - Can be problemative to manage 1. paradoxical to require employees to volunteer to do more than their jobs specifically call for as opposed to inviting them to do so. 2. making such performance behaviour and explicit expectation could be self-defeating leading employees to help others at the detriment of their own tasks. 3. There is little room for healthy dissent or the advancement of new ideas that may run counter to prevailing management wisdom. - org of yes men and paralysed by group think. |
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What are work attitudes? |
Work attitudes are a cognitive predispositions towards the self, the work context and the relationship between self and context. - consists of values and emotions (not necessarily consciously held). |
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What are the three main work attituteds |
Motivation Job satisfaction Organisational commitment |
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Work motivation |
strength of a person's willingness to undertake work effort. The willingness to exert high levels of effort toward org goals conditioned by the effort's ability to satisfy some individual need. A process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behaviour that is aimed at a goal or incentive. Three dimensions: - The direction of effort (why people take certain actions rather than others; e.g. emphasising product quantity over quality). - The intensity of effort (why the actions taken involve either a lot of effort or a little). The persistence/duration of effort (why some actions are more sustained and enduring than others. KEY to note -- what moves one individual to deliver a solid and sustained work effort may have little motivational effect on other employees , or may have more behaviour impact in some work contexts and climates than others. Motivation must be understood in context and not in isolation. |
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job satisfaction |
job satisfaction refers to the overall positive or negative attitude that an employee holds towards the job and the job context. JS can be said to subsume attitude s and affective states to do with more specific aspects of the job such as satisfaction or dissatisfaction with performance management procedures and outcomes, reward determination outcomes(i.e. reward satisfaction), career development opportunities and the like. Close association with other affective states, particularly perceptions or organisational justice and injustice. Intrinsic = job content Extrinsic - job context, relationships, culture, HR practices etc How satisfied are you with your job content or job context? |
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Organisational commitment |
Organisational commitment has to do with the strength of the employee's attachment to the organisation. The sense of attachment may be conscious and rational or subconscious, non-rational and deeply emotional, or a mixture of both. Three main attitudinal components of org commitment: 1. Affective Commitment - employee's emotional attachment to identification with and involvement in the organisation. Employees with strong affective commitment will remain with the organisation because they want to; because they identify with it emotionally, commitment from the heart. (emotional attachment) 2. Normative Commitment - feeling of obligation to stay with the organisation e.g. company paid for development of employee so employee feels bound to repay org by staying for a prescribed amount of time to 'pay back' the org even though they could attract a higher salary from another employer with the new skills. (moral obligation) 3. Continuance commitment - calculative and non-emotional. From the head not the heart. Will not leave org as the costs associated with leaving the org out weigh the benefits of leaving. Stay with the org because they need to. (cost/benefit calc) |
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What shapes attitudes? |
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How does personality influence individual performance? |
Personality may be defined as those conscious and unconscious attributes or traits that shape individual being: how we see ourselves as individuals, how others see us and how we thing and behave in daily life. The most widely accepted and applied taxonomy of personality factors or traits is the five factor model/big five. This identifies five primary factors that are said to underlie personalty: 1. Emotional stability 2. Extraversion 3. Openess to experience 4. Agreeableness 5. Contentiousness Of these conscientiousness is frequently nominated as the most valid predictor of job performance -- research suggests it is positively related to a wide range of performance criteria across many occupational categories - Seen to have positive association with citizenship behaviour. Some people say personality traits are only relevant for the job they are doing for example conscientiousness may not be good for a job that requires fast turn around and agreeableness may not be beneficial in a role where contract negotiation is required. In general, personality is hard to associate with performance and is not necessarily very important to work performance. |
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Psychological contract |
Contract - An agreement about the mutual responsibilities of parties in an exchange relationship. Involves a promise, a payment or consideration and an acceptance. Psychological contract - Perception and expectations by each party as to what they and the other party have undertaken to give and receive in the exchange. A psychological contract both fills the perceptual gaps in the written employment relationship and shapes employer and employee behaviour in ways that cannot necessarily be discerned from a written contract. There are three specific perceptions that are said to form the basis of the psychological contract -- Trustworthiness (can I trust my employer), Deal delivery (am I getting the deal I was promise) and Felt-fairness (am I treated fairy) Employee perceptions cannot be fashioned and there are some aspects that the employer cannot control. It is most dire in times of change where there may be a misalignment between promise and fulfilment resulting in a perceived violation. Trust has been found to be a critical factor in employee outlook and behaviour -- when it deteriorates so does employee satisfaction and commitment, motivation and discretionary effort. Psychological contract breach results in lower org trust. Discrepancy between espoused behaviour and actual behaviour. Trust is affected by the consistency or inconsistency of management communication. -- mixed messages can erode employee performance. |
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what are the two management espoused psychological contracts |
The old one - Relational- fair days work for fair days pay promises long term boring work. Gen x - transactional - a mutually beneficial partnership for as long as necessary. Will develop employee if they are willing. An exciting, dynamic organisation. |
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What are some of the causes of a breach of psychological contract |
Reneging on promise (failure to deliver on the deal): - pay cut or lower increases - withdrawal of overtime - Longer hours Incongruence of expectations (misalignment of expectations): - poor initial communication - Misunderstanding - Quality work - quickly! Contract drift: - Organisational change (restructure, merger, acquisition) - Downsizing and loss of job security - increasing work loads - Substitution of casuals for permanents - Growing pay inequality PERCEIVED unfairness (organisational injustice) |
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What are the two sections of organisational justice (felt-fairness) |
Procedural justice Distributive Justice |
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what is procedural justice |
Especially pertinent to procedures involved in measuring and assessing individual employee performance, with employees generally placing as much if not more weight on the felt-fairness of the assessment process as they do on the assessment scores or grades themselves. Feelings of procedural injustice may arise where the performance assessments are seen as being based on incorrect or inconsistently applied criteria, inadequate performance information, biased judgements, or deliberate harshness or leniency. |
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What is distributive justice? |
Distributive justice perceptions are those related to the felt-fairness of allocative decision-making outcomes. Clearly reward outcomes are especially pertinent to distributive felt-fairness and, in employee cognitions are likely to be informed by both absolute and relative considerations. Employees assess the fairness or otherwise of their rewards in relations to their effort and qualifications against other individuals within the same organisation. higher or lower will result in reward inequity. Equity theory proposes it can arise from over and under rewarding - but over is not dissatisfaction but guilt. Equity theory = Employee output = Other's output ------------------------- ---------------------- Employee input Other's input Six courses of action to restore equity: 1. leave the org for a more rewarding position. 2. change outcomes within the org 3. Change inputs 4. rationalise away the inequity by altering perception of their inputs and outcomes 5. Psychologically distort the inputs and outcomes of others to eliminate inequity. 6. Change the 'comparison other' (referent). |
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Which is more important procedural or distributive justice? |
It seems that procedural justice effects may be stronger on some aspects of employee attitude and behaviour than others, as well as being strong overall. Whatever the precise nature of interaction between procedural and distributive justice perceptions, however, both clearly play a central part in shaping and reshaping the employee psychological contract. If employees feel that performance and reward management procedures and/or outcomes are unfair, they are likely to be less trusting and to believe that the psychological contract has been violated. The effects on employee behaviour and performance may well be disastrous. |
