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128 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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The Systemic Circuit |
Circuit that carries blood to and from the body |
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The Pulmonary Circuit |
The circuit that carries blood to and from gas exchange surfaces of lungs |
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3 types of blood vessels |
-Arteries -Veins -Capillaries |
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Arteries |
Carry blood away from the heart |
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Veins |
Carry blood to the heart |
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Capillaries |
Networks between arteries and veins |
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4 Chambers of the heart |
-Right and left atriums -Right and left ventricles |
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Right Atrium |
-Collects blood from the systemic circuit |
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Right Ventricle |
-Pumps blood to the pulmonary circuit |
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Left Atrium |
-Collects blood from the pulmonary circuit |
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Left Ventricle |
-Pumps blood to the systemic circuit |
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Heart Location |
Located directly behind the sternum |
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Heart location in relation to the thoracic cavity |
-Surrounded by the pericardial sac -Between two pleural cavities (lungs) -In the mediastinum |
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The Pericardium |
-A double lining of the pericardial cavity -Helps protect heart |
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The Heart Wall |
-Epicardium: Outer layer -Myocardium: Middle layer -Endocardium: inner layer |
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Myocardium |
-The muscular wall of the heart -Concentric layers of cardiac muscle tissue -Atrial myocardium wraps around the great vessels |
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Intercalated Discs |
-Interconnect cardiac muscle cells -Convey force of contraction -Propagate action potentials |
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Atrioventricular (AV) Valves |
-Connects right atrium to right ventricle and left atrium to left ventricle -Blood pressure closes valve cusps during ventricular contraction -Permits blood flow in one direction |
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Septa |
-Interatrial septum: separates the atria -Interventricular septum: separates the ventricles |
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The Vena Cava |
-Large blood vessel -Delivers systemic circulation to the right atrium -Superior Vena Cava: Receives blood from head, neck, upper limbs and chest -Inferior Vena Cava: receives blood from trunk and lower limbs |
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Right Atrioventricular (AV) Valve |
-Also called the tricuspid valve -Opening from right atrium to right ventricle -Has 3 cusps -Prevents backflow |
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The Left Ventricle |
-Holds the same volume as the right ventricle -Is larger, muscle is thicker, and more powerful |
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Left Ventricle Circulation |
Systemic circulation: -blood leaves the left ventricle thru the aortic valve into ascending aorta -ascending aorta turns and becomes descending aorta. |
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Right vs. Left Ventricles |
-Right ventricle wall is thinner, develops less pressure than left ventricle. -Right ventricle is pouch shaped, left ventricle is round. |
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Semilunar Valves |
-Pulmonary and aortic tricuspid valves -Prevent back flow from pulmonary trunk and aorta into ventricles. -Have no muscular support. -3 cusps support like a tripod |
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The Fibrous Skeleton |
-4 bands around heart valves and bases of pulmonary trunk and aorta -Stabilize valves -Electrically insulate ventricular cells from atrial cells |
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Blood Supply to the Heart |
- Called Coronary circulation -R coronary artery supplies blood 2 R atrium and 2 proportions of both ventricles -L coronary artery supplies blood 2 L atrium, L ventricle, and interventricular septum. -Great and Middle cardiac veins carry blood away from the coronary capillaries & drain into coronary sinus which empties into the R atrium near the inferior vena cava |
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The Conducting System |
-A system of specialized cardiac muscle cells. -initiates and distributes electrical impulses that stimulate contraction Automaticity: cardiac tissues contract automatically. |
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Impulse Conduction Through The Heart Step 1 |
SA node activity and atrial activation begin. |
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Impulse Conduction Through The Heart Step 2 |
Stimulus spreads across the atrial surfaces and reaches the AV node |
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Impulse Conduction Through The Heart Step 3 |
-There is a 100 sec delay at the AV node. Atrial contraction begins. |
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Impulse Conduction Through The Heart Step 4 |
The impulse travels along the interventricular septum within the AV bundle and the bundle branches to the Purkinje fibers and, via the moderator band, to the papillary muscles of the right ventricle. |
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The Sinoatrial (SA) Node |
-In posterior wall of right atrium -Contains pacemaker cells -Connected to AV node by internal pathways -Begins atrial activation (Step 1) |
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The Atrioventricular (AV) node |
-In floor of right atrium -Receives impulse from SA node (Step 2) -Delays impulse (Step 3) -Atrial contraction begins |
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AV bundle (Bundle of HIS) |
-Located in the interventricular septum -Carries impulse from the AV node (Step 4) |
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Purkinje Fibers |
-Located in the ventricular walls -Carry the impulse from the AV bundle -Signals the contractile fibers in the ventricular walls to contract (Step 5) |
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Features of an Electrocardiogram |
P wave: depolarazation of atria QRS complex: depolarization of ventricles T wave: ventricles depolarize |
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Blood Pressure |
Systolic and Diastolic In any chamber: -rises during systole -falls during diastole Blood flows from high to low pressure -controlled by timing of contractions -directed by one way waves |
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Important Cardiodynamic Terms |
End-diastolic (EDV) End-systolic (ESV) Stroke Volume (SV) Ejection Fraction: percentage of EDV represented by SV Cardiac Output (CO) The volume pumped by each ventricle in 1 minute |
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Cardiac Cycle and Heart Rate |
-At 75 beats per minute: cardiac cycle lasts about 800 sec. -When heart rate increases: All phases of cardiac cycle shorten, particularly diastole. |
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Stroke Volume |
Volume of blood ejected per beat |
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Adjusting to Conditions |
Cardiac Output: adjusted by changes in heart rate or stroke volume Heart Rate: adjusted by autonomic nervous system or hormones Stroke Volume: adjusted by changing EDV or ESV. |
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Cardiac Reflexes |
Cardiac centers monitor: -Baroreceptors: (blood pressure) -Chemoreceptors: (arterial oxygen and CO2 levels) -Cardiac centers adjust cardiac activity |
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Hormonal effects on Heart Rate
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Increase of heart rate (by sympathetic stimulation of SA node) -epinephrine -norepinephrine -thyroid hormone |
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Functions of the Blood |
-Transports dissolved substances-gases, nutrients, hormones, and wastes. -Regulation of pH and of ions/electrolyte composition throughout the body -Restricts fluid loss at injury sites -Defense against toxins and pathogens -Stabilization of body temp. |
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Characteristics of Blood |
-Normal temp is 38 C (100.4 F)- warmer than mouth temperature -Thick-5 times thicker than water -pH is slightly alkaline |
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Blood Volume |
7% of body weight. Males have 5-6 litres Females have 4-5 litres |
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Composition of Whole Blood |
Plasma: ground substance and proteins Formed Elements: -Erythrocytes: Red Blood Cells -Leukocytes: White Blood Cells -Platelets: Keratinized blood cells that help clot |
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Fractionation |
Process of separating blood for clinical analysis. -Blood and Plasma Separate with the white blood cells and platelets in the middle |
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Plasma |
-About 55% of total blood volume -Mostly water (92%) -Dissolved proteins |
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Plasma Proteins
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Albumins: 65% Globulins: 35% Fibrinogen: 4% |
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Albumins |
A Plasma Protein Transports substances -Fatty acids -thyroid hormones -steroid hormones |
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Globulins |
A plasma protein Antibodies: Also called immunoglobulins -attack foreign proteins and pathogens |
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Fibrinogen |
A plasma protein Helps form blood clots by producing long, insoluble strands of fibrin |
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Hematocrit |
The percentage of formed elements in the blood |
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Red Blood Cells |
-Make up about 99% of the formed elements -Normal RBC count is 5 million per microliter. |
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Red Blood Cell Structure |
Biconcave Disk -Shape gives RBC a high surface to volume ration that allows for the quick absorption and release of oxygen. Discs bend and flex entering small capillaries Aneucleuated: cannot divide, made in red bone marrow |
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Hemoglobin |
-Protein responsible for transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide (respiration) -Made of two pairs of globular proteins, each with 2 subunits (4 subunits total) |
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Hemoglobin Structure |
4 globular protein subunits: -each with 1 molecule of heme -each heme contains one iron ion Iron ions easily -associate with oxygen -or dissociate from oxygen |
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Binding of Oxygen to Heme |
When oxygen is abundant in the plasma, the hemoglobin molecules gain oxygen until all the heme molecules have been occupied. After oxygen levels decline and carbon monoxide levels rise in plasma, the hemoglobin molecules release their oxygen reserves and the globin portion of the hemoglobin molecules begins to bind with CO2. |
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Anaemia |
Hematocrit or hemoglobin levels are below normal, reducing the ability to carry oxygen. Caused by several conditions such as: -Intestinal parasites -Genetic causes |
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Sickle Cell Anaemia |
A condition marked by misshapen cells caused by the mutation of a gene which affects one pair of the globular proteins of the hemoglobin molecule. -Hemoglobin defective in a sickle cell and the cell changes shape, getting stuck in capillaries and causing oxygen starvation |
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Lifespan of Red Blood Cells |
-Lack nuclei and other organelles, they don't divide or produce energy. -Live about 120 days |
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Erythrocyte Recycling |
1% of circulating RBCs wear out per day. Macrophages of liver, spleen and bone marrow monitor RBCs and engulf them when they die- before they hemolyze. -If a damages or aged RBC ruptures, its hemoglobin is not recycles. This can result in hemoglobinuria where urine turns red or brown |
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Erythropoiesis |
Red Blood Cell formation Happens only in Red bone marrow Stem cells mature to become RBCs. Normoblast: Stage where nucleus is ejected |
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White Blood Cells |
Also called leukocytes -Dont have hemoglobin -Have nuclei and other organelles -Also made in red bone marrow |
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White Blood Cell Functions |
-Defend against pathogens -Remove toxins and wastes -Attack abnormal cells |
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White Blood Cell Circulation |
-Migrate out of blood stream -Have amoeboid movement -Attracted to chemical stimuli Some are phagocytic: -neutrophils, eosinophils, and monocytes |
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Types of White Blood Cells |
Divided into 2 groups 1. Granulocytes: look like they have grains -neutrophils -eosinophils -basophils 2. Agranulocytes: don't look grained -monocytes -lymphocytes |
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Neutrophils |
-Also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes -50-70% of circulating WBCs -Pale cytoplasm granules with: -lysosomal enzymes -bactericides (hydrogen peroxide and superoxide) |
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Neutrophil Action |
-Very active, 1st to attack bacteria -Engulf pathogens -Digest pathogens -Form pus |
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Eosinophils |
-Also called acidophils -2-4% of circulating WBCs -Attack large parasites -Excrete toxic compounds: -nitric oxide - cytotoxic enzymes (cell killer) |
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Eosinophil Actions |
-Are sensitive to allergens -Control inflammation with enzymes that counteract inflammatory effects of neutrophils and mast cells |
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Basophils |
-Less than 1% of circulating WBCs -Small -Accumulate in damaged tissue |
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Basophil Actions |
-Release histamine: dilates blood vessels -Release heparin: prevents blood clotting |
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Monocytes |
2-8% of white blood cells -Both free and fixed |
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Monocyte Actions |
-Engulf large particles and pathogens -Secrete substances that attract immune system cells and fibroblasts to injured area -Release chemicals that attract and stimulate neutrophils, other monocytes, phagocytes, and fibroblasts (scar tissue makers) |
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Lymphocytes |
-20-30% of circulating WBCs -Larger than RBCs -Migrate in and out of the blood -Mostly in connective tissues and lymphatic organs |
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Lymphocyte Actions |
Are part of the bodys specific defense system T Cells: -cell mediated immunity -attack foreign cells directly B Cells -Production and distribution of antibodies NK (natural killer) cells -Immune surveillance-seeks and destroys abnormal tissue cells |
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Leukopoiesis |
-The process of white blood cell production -Regulated by colony stimulating factors (CSF's) which target a specific stem cell line or group of stem cell lines |
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Platelets |
-Cell fragments involved in human clotting system -Also called thrombocytes -Produced by cells in the bone marrow called megakaryocytes Functions: -Release important clotting chemicals -Temporarily patch damaged vessel walls -Actively contract tissue after clot formation |
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Hemostasis |
The cessation of bleeding -vascular phase -cessation phase -coagulation phase |
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The Vascular Phase |
-A cut triggers a vascular spasm -30 minute contraction -Membranes are sticky |
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The Platelet Phase |
Begins within 15 seconds after injury -Platelets go to cut to adhere and form clot |
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The Coagulation Phase |
-Begins 30 seconds or more after the injury -Fibrin is introduced. |
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Blood Vessel Size |
Arteries: -Aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries Veins: Vena Cavae, veins, venules |
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Blood Vessel Anatomy |
3 tissue layers in arteries and veins -Tunica interna/intima -innermost layer made of endothelium and connective tissue -Tunica media -Muscular layer-smooth muscle, allows for constriction and dilation -Tunica externa -outer layer made of a sheath of connective tissue |
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Arteries |
-Carry blood away from the heart 3 types: -elastic -muscular -arteriole |
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Elastic Arteries |
-Pulmonary trunk and aorta -Large in diameter -Very strong -Contraction of the ventricles cause an increase in pressure which stretches them. -When ventricles relax they return to normal |
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Muscular Arteries |
-Carotid artery, brachial artery, and the femoral artery- examples -Medium sized -Carry blood to muscles and organs -More muscle fibers than elastic fibers |
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Arterioles |
-Small in diameter -Muscle layers allow for expansion -Capable of altering blood pressure and rate of flow |
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Veins |
-Collect blood from all the tissues and organs -Have thin walls compared to arteries -Have valves |
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Pressure |
-Blood flows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure -Highest in aorta and greatly reduced in vena cavae -Circulatory pressure is divided into 3 components: 1. arterial pressure, 2. capillary pressure, 3. Venous pressure |
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Resistance |
Low in venous system, high in arterial system |
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Capillary Exchange |
-Capillary Hydrostatic Pressure (CHP) pushes water and solutes out of the capillaries. -Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure (BCOP) is the force of water movement from a higher to lower concentration CHP pushes out, BCOP pulls in water |
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Venous Pressure |
-Low and veins offer little resistance -As blood travels thru venous system and approaches the heart, veins become larger and resistance falls, causing blood flow to increase. |
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Resisting Gravity |
1. Muscular Compression: Contraction of skeletal muscles near a vein compress it, helping push blood towards the heart 2. Respiratory pump: Inhalation causes a decrease in pressure in the thoracic cavity. |
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Local Factors |
-Factors that change the pattern of blood flow in capillary beds |
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Neural Mechanisms |
Mechanisms that respond to changes in arterial pressure and blood gas levels, cause adjustments in cardiac output and arterial resistance |
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Endocrine Factors |
Hormones that are released to enhance short term adjustments and direct long term changes |
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Local Factors Physiology |
-Precapillary sphincters respond to increases or decreases in oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. -Vasodilators cause precapillary sphincters to open -Vasoconstrictors cause them to close |
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Neural Mechanisms Physiology |
-Medulla oblongata works thru sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system to control vascular resistance Vasodilation: decrease BP Vasoconstriction: increase BP |
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Endocrine Factors Physiology |
Hormones: -Epinephrine-secreted by adrenal glands and stimulates arterial vasoconstriction -Norepinephrine- secreted by adrenal glands and stimulates arterial vasoconstriction -Antidiuretic hormone stimulates arterial vasoconstriction that elevates blood pressure and has a water conserving effect on the kidneys. |
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The Respiratory System |
Necessary for cells to produce energy: -For maintenance, growth, defense, and division. -Thru mechanisms that use O2 and produce CO2. |
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Pleural Cavities and Pleural Membranes |
2 Pleural cavities, separated by the mediastinum Each pleural cavity: -Holds a lung -Is lined with a membrane (pleura) |
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Oxygen |
-Obtained from the air by breathing. -Carried to cells by the cardiovascular system to the tissues of the body which also returns CO2 to the lungs |
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Functions of the Respiratory System |
1. Provides extensive gas exchange surface area between air and circulating blood 2. Moves air 2 and from exchange surfaces in lungs 3. Protects respiratory surfaces from outside 4. Produces sounds 5.Participates in olfactory sense (and sense of taste) |
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Components of Respiratory System |
-Pharynx -Larynx -Nasal cavity -oral cavity -bronchi - 2 lungs -diaphragm |
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Upper Respiratory System |
-Nasal conchae: superior, middle, and inferior -Hard and soft palates -Pharynx -Larynx |
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Pharynx |
-A chamber shared by digestive and respiratory systems -Extends from the level of the internal nares to entrances to larynx and esophagus |
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Thyroid Cartilage |
-Also called the Adams apple -Hyaline cartilage -Forms anterior and lateral walls of larynx |
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Cricoid Cartilage |
-Hyaline Cartilage -Forms posterior position of larynx |
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Epiglottis |
-Composed of elastic cartilage |
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Tidal Volume |
Amount of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath |
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Vital Capacity |
Tidal volume plus expiratory and inspiratory reserve volumes |
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Residual Volume |
-Air left in lungs after maximum exhalation -keeps lungs from collapsing |
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Respiratory Minute Volume |
-Amount of air moved per minute -Calculated by respiratory rate x tidal volume -measures pulmonary ventilation |
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The Respiratory Muscles |
-The diaphragm -External intercostal muscles of the ribs -accessory respiratory muscles: activated when respiration increases significantly |
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Processes of External Respiration |
1. Breathing 2. Gas Diffusion across membrane and capillaries 3. Transport of O2 and CO2: -between alveolar capillaries -between capillary beds in other tissues |
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Respiratory Membrane
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-Thin membrane of alveoli where gas exchange takes place |
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Alveolar Epithelium |
-Simple squamous epithelium -Thin, delicate type 1 cells -Patrolled by alveolar macrophages, also called dust cells -Contains septal cells (type 2 cells) that produce surfactant |
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Bronchi and Lobules |
Bronchial Tree: -Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, pulmonary lobule Pulmonary lobule: -Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli. |
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The Left Lung |
-Has 2 lobes -superior and inferion - separated by an oblique fissure |
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The Right Lung |
Has 3 lobes: -superior, middle, and inferior -separated by horizontal and oblique fissures |
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The Lungs |
Hilus: -Where pulmonary nerves, blood vessels and lymphatics enter lung -Anchored in meshwork of tissue Base: -inferior portion of each lung rests on superior surface of diaphragm |
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Respiratory Epithelium |
-Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium -Conditions air: -warms -humidifies -cleans |
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The Trachea |
-Extends form the cricoid cartilage into the mediastinum -Branches into left and right pulmonary bronchi. |
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The Glottis |
Speech: -Produced by phonation -sound production at larynx -Articulation - modification of sound by structures Air passing thru glottis vibrates vocal cords. |
