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26 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Status and Roles
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- Every organization is made up of an interrelated set of statuses (positions) that members of the system occupy
- These positions are needed to perform tasks and meet the goals of the system - Each status position in an organization comes with roles (responsibilities and privileges) attached to it - Roles locate us in relation to others who hold reciprocal positions - Both statuses and roles are elements of the organization’s structure, not attributes of individuals |
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School Organization and Roles
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- Organizational setting in which we carry out our roles define and limit the ways we behave
- Result of organizational centralization means that decision making is removed from the classroom and teachers' autonomy may be limited - Many other factors affect role performance of members of the system |
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Role Expectations and Conflict
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- Schools function smoothly when people agree on role expectations and these expectations are carried out
- Conflict occurs when there is disagreement about the expectations and how they should be carried out - The more authority there is in a role, the greater the possibility of conflict between that role and the roles of those with less authority - NOTE: Role conflict not only occurs between people in different status positions, it can also occur for an individual occupying any status position - occurs when their own role expectations are in conflict with expectations of others or cannot be met - The goals of education can be ambiguous, contradictory and not universally shared, causing confusion in expectations and conflict - Definitions of the position and function the position plays toward meeting system goals differ among members of the organization |
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Perspectives of Role Expectations
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- Role expectations as defined by the organization and agreed to by participants should benefit all by helping to maintain a smooth running system assuming individuals carry out role expectations as planned
-Conflict: some roles put the role-holders in advantageous positions for obtaining the scarce resources of society |
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Characterization of Professionals
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1. Credential and licensing requirements for entry (into the profession)
2. Induction and mentoring programs for entrants 3. Professional development support, opportunities, and participation 4. Specialization 5. Authority over decision making 6. Compensation levels (fee for service) 7. Prestige and occupational social standing - Conflict can arise between principles governing the bureaucracies for which they work and those governing their profession → makes it difficult to adjust for professionals to bureaucratic structures - Have high prestige in occupational rankings |
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Professionalism of Teachers
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- Classified as semiprofessionals/marginal professionals which generally involve nurturing, helping, and supporting responsibilities and include a preponderance of females
- 82% of public elementary and secondary school teachers in US are female→ arguments that predominantly female occupations have failed to reach professional level because of male political and economic elite that keeps job status and pay of semiprofessionals down and leaves them with little autonomy in bureaucratic system - Teaching is still one of the higher-prestige occupations readily available to women - Also includes nurses, social workers, librarians |
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Teachers vs. Full Professional Status
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- Failed to develop teacher subculture (unity as a group)
- Membership in teaching occupation does not have the clear qualifications and boundaries for membership - not considered regular employment in US until mid 19th century→ advent of free public education and founding of National Teacher's Association - Direction of teachers comes from bureaucracy rather than professional organizations - Receive a salary from the organization in exchange for teaching students rather than operating on a fee-for-service basis - Have specialized skills but do not posses specialized knowledge (not generally possessed by lay people) and are scrutinized and regulated by bureaucracy and lay public rather than by colleagues → factors of close supervision, emphasis on rules, and centralization can be alienating to those who want to be treated as professionals (gain recognition, prestige, autonomy, and higher salaries)→ reform movements, militancy, and unionization |
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School Boards
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- Found at nearly every school (public or private), at every level
- Unique to the US - Theoretically have tremendous power awarded to them by states stemming from tradition of democratic lay control over schools |
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Role of School Board
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1. Hiring superintendent
2. Determining teachers' salaries and contracts 3. Providing transportation for students 4. Determining size of the school budgets 5. Deciding the length of the school term 6. Building new schools and facilities 7. Changing school attendance boundaries 8. Selecting textbooks and subjects to be taught 9. Maintaining school discipline - Reality: once superintendent has been selected, exert little control over administration, teaching, or curriculum and instead focus on school policy matter - Funding, student achievement, special education, teacher quality, educational technology, and safety - Gap between views of public and school board on wide number of issues |
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State Board of Education
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- Often appointed by governor or mayor and subject to approval of legislators
- Oversee state standards and district policies especially concerning state monies - May have considerable influence on decisions in curriculum issues, expenditures, and other methods of financing schools |
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Composition of School Boards
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- Typical board has 5-8 members who serve 4-year terms
- Average member serves for 6.7 years, so many serve more than one term - Predominantly white, male, high socioeconomic status (above average income/education) between 41-50 years of age and have children in school - 2/3 receive no salary for their work - Each state has own laws to determine how board members are selected and what powers are delegated to local boards - Almost all (96.2%) are elected although some states allow elected or appointed school boards depending on local preference - Debate over appointed vs. elected school board members: appointed may have a political agenda but generally more committed to education because not as likely to run for some higher local office - Tend not to be educators and have little training or orientation for their job →implied assumption that non-educators know how to run institutions better than educators |
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Bowles and Gintis
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- Neo-Marxists who argue that schools serve the interests of those who dominate economy in capitalist society
- In districts with appointed school board members, more likely than elected members to represent bourgeois interests of those in power→ break potential for conflict with other community interests groups |
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Role Expectations of School Boards
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-Different for parent, taxpayer, professional, or other
- Promote public interest in education, defend community values, hear complaints and grievances, supervise school personnel, conserve resources, promote individual rights and interests within school |
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Factors Affecting Board Decisions
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- The most pressing issues are managing budget constraints and state/federal mandates
- Limited in their effectiveness and and influence because caught in the middle between demands of electors and needs of the school -Most of decision making is routine and involves interactions are primarily with parent-teacher associations, administration, teachers, and community members - Limited by lack of knowledge held by professional educators→often rely on these professionals when making decisions |
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Superintendent
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- Complex, multifaceted, job that is increasingly negative due to funding issues, hostile boards, shabby treatment, negative publicity, graft and corruption, conflicting expectations, and rigid requirements
- Predominantly white (96%) and male (76%) but increasing numbers of minorities and females - Very few last for more than 5-6 years may→ be burned out or may be terminated - Difficult to plan firm schedule as crises often interrupt work - In large district, the role may be divided up between several assistant superintendents who each special in an aspect of the role (curriculum, staffing, public relations, ect.) - Generally well-paid and short-lived |
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Roles of Superintendent
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- Issue budget reports; engage in staff negotiations; answer mail and phone calls; meet with principles, staff, and others; carry out routine blessings on projects; give symbolic gestures of support and approval; prepare reports for board, the state, and federal government; keep up with new regulations; respond to questions; long-term planning; curriculum and teacher evaluation; and make staff recommendations
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Power of Superintendent
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- Dependent upon a number of variables: type of community, composition and role of school board, baby booms (expanding student populations), teacher strikes, demands by teachers, students, and community for power and autonomy in decision making, federal guidelines and requirements for accountability, and court orders
- In attempts to exercise power, superintendent deals with conflicting demands on a regular basis - Must deal with numerous constituencies: community groups, parents, the school board, principals, teachers, and staff - It is helpful when the superintendent is politically savvy and can persuade numerous and conflicting constituents→ outcome of power depends on superintendent's style |
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Advent of Administration
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- Until early 19th century, local boards were responsible for running community schools (smaller districts and fewer compulsory years)
- As school systems became increasingly large, complex, and urban professionals took over - Moved from relatively informal relationship between school and community to more systematic and rational system - Transformation paralleled changes in society to a more corporate bureaucratic system run by professionals - Values of industrialization, free enterprise, and capitalism resulted in large industrial organizations becoming model for schools - Cohen's "cult of efficiency"→ sacrificing educational goals to the demands of business procedures |
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Principal
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- Manager-coordinator→ school boss-in-the-middle often between conflicting interests/responsibilities: must make recommendations of hiring and firing of teachers while at the same time giving moral support to teachers
- Have more direct contact with pubic than administrators do - Most principals were teachers and based on their experience they tend to have a stronger identification with teachers than with administrators even though their status makes them administrators but teachers see them as administrators→ creates role conflict - Has numerous interactions with parents, students, and teachers; has to interface with the school board, teachers, parents, and students; and often deals with conflicting issues - Research indicates the need for a strong instructional leader (visit classrooms, observe teachers, make/ ask for suggestions) in a principal in support strong academics and achievement - If a principal receives support from teachers and works with them, mandates are more likely to be implemented |
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Role of Principal
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- Size of school and district, rural or urban environment, and social class background of students effect role and expectations
- Interacts with teachers, superintendent, parents, students, staff, and service providers - Managing school; facilitating the teaching and learning processes; dealing with daily, routine teacher needs and student concerns; maintaining good relationships with groups outside of school; competency testing of students and teachers; and marketing of their school (new role) - Priorities shaped by measure of school effectiveness: enacting accountability standards, ensuring school safety, developing good teachers, maintaining effective community relations, and creating sense of shared purpose within school |
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Problems Facing Principal
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- Funding, micromanaging by superiors, politics entering into decision making, accountability movements, federal government mandates, teacher quality and tenure issues, earlier unset of puberty, and growing diversity
- The role of the principal is increasingly stressful (mandates, accountability) and school safety is an issue more than ever (growing violence and its impact on student achievement) - Cannot perform their own role without giving some consideration to how their performance might affect or infringe on roles of others - Spend part of the day dealing with the unexpected→ building problems, student discipline and illness or accidents, disasters (bus accident, suicide, bomb threats or weapons in the school), and natural disasters - Involved in decision making in many areas but share the responsibility with those holding reciprocal roles |
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Power of Principals
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- Can influence schools through effectiveness and interactions
- Effectiveness depends upon having teachers “on board” with their programs and priorities - Principals can make life easier for teachers who work with them and provide less desirable situations for teachers who do not (classroom placements, assignments of unruly students, and undesirable scheduling) - Expectations of teachers strongly influence teacher morale, performance, and self-concept |
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Teachers
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- 3.7 million people work as teachers in the U.S.
- Teachers make up four percent of the U.S. workforce. - Teachers are largely middle-class and white (87%), mostly middle-aged (42% over 50; 27% are 40-49) - Only one out of five (21%) of teachers are male (mostly in secondary schools). - An average teacher spends 15 years in the classroom. |
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Women and Minority Teachers
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- For many years, teaching was one of the few prestigious professional career paths for women and minorities
- Even with broader options today, women make up three-quarters (76%) of education majors while males predominate as principals and superintendents - Minorities (and women) generally encounter less discrimination in seeking entry into teaching compared to other professions, in part because teaching is in the public sector (objective criteria: degree and experience) rather than private sector (subjective criteria: employer discretion) - (+) work schedule, degree costs, “helping” / (-) salary - Administrative career opportunities are limited and take much longer to achieve than for men - 16% said they would teach again, 19% would not |
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Teacher Retention
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- Retention is high in the teaching profession; and those who leave for dissatisfaction cite low salaries as a reason
- Teachers’ careers follow three stages: survival (beginning teachers in new setting, discovering new challenges), stabilization (mid-career), and disengagement from strong investment in teaching (nearing retirement) - Because most teachers remain, teaching has become a middle-age workforce (42% over 50 years of age/ 27% 40-49 years old) - (+) experience, connections / (-) competence, expense, limited opportunities for new teachers, technology |
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Teachers as Socializers
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- Teachers are primary socializers (formally and informally) of young children→ strong intergenerational bonding between teachers and students→ higher academic achievement and fewer disciplinary problems
- In early grades, teachers see their role as nurturing and caring (training and certification reflect this emphasis i.e., child development)→increased testing, preparing students for enhance - Teachers have an enormous amount of responsibility in creating an effective learning environment - Teachers have very visible roles and are expected to set a good moral example for young people (role models) |
