Survey Art History Summer Exam 1

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Acropolis

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An acropolis (Greek: ἀκρόπολις; from akros or akron, "highest", "topmost", "outermost" and polis, "city"; plural in English: acropoles,acropoleis or acropolises)[1][2] is a settlement, especially a citadel, built upon an area of elevated ground—frequently a hill withprecipitous sides, chosen for purposes of defense.

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Amphora

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An amphora (English plural: amphorae or amphoras) is a type of container of a characteristic shape and size, descending from at least as early as the Neolithic Period. Amphorae were used in vast numbers for the transport and storage of various products, both liquid and dry, but mostly for wine. It is most often ceramic, but examples in metals and other materials have been found.

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Apadana

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An Apadana (Old Persian: 𐎠𐎱𐎭𐎠𐎴) is a large hypostyle hall, the best known examples being the great audience hall and portico atPersepolis and the palace of Susa. The Persepolis Apadana belongs to the oldest building phase of the city of Persepolis, the first half of the 5th century BC, as part of the original design by Darius the Great. Its construction completed by Xerxes I. Modern scholarships "demonstrates the metaphorical nature of the Apadana reliefs as idealised social orders".[1]

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Black-Figure Painting

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Black-figure technique – artists silhouetted the forms (figures, objects) with slip against the unpainted clay of the background.Using a sharp tool, they incised linear details within the silhouetted shape

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Canon

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Canon – a system of ratios between a basic unit and the length of various body parts-- observation and generalization to create an ideal figure.

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Capital

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In architecture the capital (from the Latin caput, or "head", Greek kapita) forms the topmost member of a column (or a pilaster). It mediates between the column and the load thrusting down upon it, broadening the area of the column's supporting surface. The capital, projecting on each side as it rises to support the abacus, joins the usually square abacus and the usually circular shaft of the column. The capital may be convex, as in the Doric order; concave, as in the inverted bell of the Corinthian order; or scrolling out, as in the Ionic order. These form the three principal types on which all capitals are based.

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Caryatid

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A caryatid (/kæriˈætɪd/; Greek: Καρυάτις, plural: Καρυάτιδες) is a sculpted female figure serving as an architectural support taking the place of a column or a pillar supporting an entablature on her head. The Greek term karyatides literally means "maidens of Karyai", an ancient town of Peloponnese

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Centaur

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The centaur is a mythological creature. Its head, arms, and chest are those of a human and the rest of its body, including four legs, hindquarters, and a tail is like that of a horse. There are also deer-centaurs, dog-centaurs, and the Gaelic androcephalous or man-headed horse

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Contrapposto

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Contrapposto is an Italian term that means counterpose. It is used in the visual arts to describe a human figure standing with most of its weight on one foot so that its shoulders and arms twist off-axis from the hips and legs.

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Cuneiform

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denoting or relating to the wedge-shaped characters used in the ancient writing systems of Mesopotamia, Persia, and Ugarit, surviving mainly impressed on clay tablets.

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Cyclopean Masonry

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Cyclopean masonry is a type of stonework found in Mycenaean architecture, built with massive limestone boulders, roughly fitted together with minimal clearance between adjacent stones and no use of mortar. The boulders typically seem unworked, but some may have been worked roughly with a hammer and the gaps between boulders filled in with smaller chunks of limestone.The most famous examples of Cyclopean masonry are found in the walls of Mycenae and Tiryns, and the style is characteristic of Mycenaean fortifications. Similar styles of stonework are found in other cultures and the term has come to be used to describe typical stonework of this sort.The term comes from the belief of classical Greeks that only the mythical Cyclopes had the strength to move the enormous boulders that made up the walls of Mycenae and Tiryns. Pliny's Natural History reported the tradition attributed to Aristotle, that the Cyclopes were the inventors of masonry towers, giving rise to the designation Cyclopean.[1]

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Entasis

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a slight convex curve in the shaft of a column, introduced to correct the visual illusion of concavity produced by a straight shaft

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Fresco

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Fresco (plural frescos or frescoes) is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly-laid, or wet lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for the pigment to merge with the plaster, and with the setting of the plaster, the painting becomes an integral part of the wall. The word fresco (Italian: affresco) is derived from the Italian adjective fresco meaning "fresh", and may thus be contrasted with fresco-secco or seccomural painting techniques, which are applied to dried plaster, to supplement painting in fresco. The fresco technique has been employed since antiquity and is closely associated with Italian Renaissance painting.[1][2]

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Frieze

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A frieze is a decorative band, usually, but not always, above a doorframe or on the wall near the ceiling. You may find a frieze of sculptured angels too formal for the trim of your bedroom wall. You might not think of a friezein the same category as a painting or a statue, but it can be a true work ofart.

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Hierarchy of Scale

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Hierarchical proportion is a technique used inart, mostly in sculpture and painting, in which the artist uses unnatural proportion or scale to depict the relative importance of the figures in the artwork

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Krater

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a jar or vase of classical antiquity having a large round body and a wide mouth and used for mixing wine and water.

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Mortuary temple

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Mortuary temples (or memorial temples) were temples constructed adjacent to, or in the vicinity of, royal tombs in theAncient Egypt. The temples were designed to commemorate the reign of the pharaoh by whom they were built, as well as for use by the pharaoh's cult after death.

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Pediment

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A pediment is an element in classical, neoclassical and baroque architecture, and derivatives therefrom, consisting of a gable, originally of a triangular shape, placed above the horizontal structure of the entablature, typically supported by columns. The tympanum, or triangular area within the pediment, was often decorated with relief sculpture depicting scenes from Greek and Roman mythology or allegorical figures.

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Red-figure painting

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Red-figure technique – artists painted not the shapes but the background around the forms (negative spaces). Instead of engraving details, they drew with a fine brush. Result – fluidity and greater sense of 3D

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Volute

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A volute is a spiral, scroll-like ornament that forms the basis of the Ionic order, found in the capital of the Ionic column. It was later incorporated into Corinthian order and Composite column capitals. Four are normally to be found on an Ionic capital, eight on Composite capitals and smaller versions (sometimes called helix) on the Corinthian capital.[1]

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Doric

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Ionic

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Entasis

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Volute

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Hall of the Bulls, Lascaux, France ca. 16,000-14,000 BCE. Paint on limestone rock.

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Rhinoceros, Wounded Man, Bison. Lascaux, France ca. 16,000-14,000 BCE. Paint on limestone rock.

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Remote placement -- on the bottom of 16-foot shaft, which contained lamps and spears.-- First narrative scene (very unusual) -- attempts to tell a story-- Human figure is simplified, while the bison is rendered with accurate detail.-- The scene may depict the vision of a shaman, a ritualistic hunt )the bison has been disemboweled, and is about to die)

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Cave artists demonstrate a profound knowledge of animal shapes. Animal figures predominate – maybe it points to ritual significance related to hunting-- Caves were used as places for social gatherings and (perhaps) ritual practice-- Animals are superimposed and repainted (so cave paintings should not be described in terms of a unified composition)-- Complete and convincing images of animals – we can easily distinguish all the animals represented. -- Twisted perspective is used: the heads are represented in profile but the horns are represented from the front.

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Nude woman (Venus of Willendorf), ca. 28,000 -25,000 BCE. Limestone.

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Portable object, small scale
Disproportional figure Figurine’s large breasts and swollen belly are very pronouncedVery schematic rendition of the head: absence of portrait specificity; abstracted hat? braids?Her genital area appears to have been deliberately emphasized. It suggests that the "subject" of the sculpture is female procreativity and nurture The genitals were painted red – reference to menstrual blood
Possible functions (theories): -- Fertility idol, or magical charm to ensure fertility; -- doll; -- first self-portraits; -- prehistoric pin-up images, prehistoric porn (carried by men during their long hunting trips)

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Bison, Altamira Cave, ca. 13,000-11,000 BCE.

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The cave represents a herd of bison during mating period-- Possible function -- images meant to enhance the fertility of animals used for food
Created sculptural effects by painting over and around natural irregularities in the cave ceilings-- Firstly, painted large areas (animals’ shoulders, backs, etc.). Secondly, sharpened the contours of the rocks and added details of the legs, heads, tails, horns.

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Stonehenge, Salisbury Plain, England, ca. 2550-1600 BCE.

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Temple made for communal worshipAstronomical observatory: the monument is symmetrically arranged around the central axis. It points directly to the spot on the horizon where the sun first appears on June 21 (summer solstice)Sacred cemetery

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Warka Vase, ca. 3200-3000 BCE. Alabaster

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Inanna -- goddess of love and war.The picture space is organized into registers – order (!)The lower register shows the natural world (water and plants)Above the plans domesticated animals stand on a solid groundlineIn the middle register nude men carry baskets with food – votive offering to be deposited in the templeIn the top register, Inanna stands in front of her shrine accepting an offering from the priest-kingInterpretation -- ritual marriage between the goddess and a human king during the New Year’s festival -- to ensure the fertility of crops, animals, and people

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Stylistic characteristicsStrict organization of pictorial space (registers)Use of twisted perspective – combination of frontal and profile views -- conceptual rather than optical (based on observation) perceptionThe goal is not to create a believable snap shot but rather to show the most characteristic parts of human bodyHierarchy of scale – to communicate the importance of main characters

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Statuettes of two worshipers, ca. 2700 BCE. Gypsum inlaid with shell and black limestone.

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Two Worshippers (Votive Statues) from the Square Temple at Eshnunna (Tell Asmar), -- Votive figures – statues made as an act of worship to the gods – depict individual donors (mortals). -- People commissioned these statues, which were to be set up in a shrine before the larger, more elaborate image of a god.--Static poses, with hands clasped between chest and waist level.-- The wide-open eyes emphasize the importance of fixing on a god with an attentive gaze.-- The votive statues are in perpetual attention, making eye contact and chanting their donors’ prayers through eternity.-- Face, hair, body and clothing are reduced to simple geometric forms.

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Ziggurat, Ur, Iraq, ca. 2100 BCE (technically, it is Neo-Sumerian, but stylistically it fits Sumerian Art)

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Dedicated to the moon god NannaStepped pyramidal structure (50 feet high) with a temple on top. (Elevation provided protection from flooding). Mud-brick structure.Proclaimed the wealth, prestige, stability of rulers and glorified its protective gods. Also functioned symbolically: as bridges between the earth and the heavens – a meeting place for humans and their gods.Its base is a rectangle with 3 sets of stairs converging at an imposing entrance gate atop the first platform.

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Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, 2254-2218 BCE. Pink sandstone.

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Main theme – imperial authorityStele (upright stone slab) commemorates a military victory of Naram-Sin (over the Lullubi, people of the Zagros mountains in eastern Mesopotamia). Celebrates the achievements of an individual ruler.The horizontal registers are replaced with wavy ground lines.The images stand on their own – no explanatory inscriptions. Watched over by three solar deities (3 suns), Naram-sin ascends a mountain wearing a horned crown used to identify gods. Naram-Sin was the first Mesopotamian ruler to deify himselfThe king is immediately recognizable. He stands at the dramatic center of the scene, closest to mountaintop (a symbol for a ziggurat). His greater size in relationship to his soldiers is an indication of his greater importance -- hierarchy of scale

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Lamassu, ca. 720-705 BCE. Limestone.

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Guardian-protectors – adorned the gateway to the palace
omposite creature (winged, human-headed bulls)Designed to be viewed frontally (immobile) and from a side (moving image – addition of a fifth leg)Large scale -- strength of a ruler, king’s authority

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Palette of Narmer, ca. 3000 BCE. Slate.

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Function: used for grinding eye paint. Narmer appears as the main character in the various scenes of the palette.He is depicted as the unifier, protector, and the leader.Hieratic scale signals the status of individuals within the societyEgyptian representation of a human figure. Use of twisted perspective. The aim is to represent each body part from the most characteristic angle.

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Narmer wears the White Crown of Upper Egypt and bull’s tail – symbol of royal power. Barefoot -- Narmer is standing on a sacred groundGod Horus (falcon) offers his protection.The king tames his enemy, who is naked (debased).

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On the top register Narmer is wearing a crown of Lower Egypt. (unification of Egypt). He is accompanied by a sandal bearer, minister, and standard bearers. The decapitated bodies of his enemies are placed in two neat rows. Horus is watching over. In the center, the intertwining necks of two feline creatures form the cup of the palette. In the bottom register a bull (the king) stands over a fallen enemy outside the wall of the fortress.

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Great Pyramids, Giza, Egypt, ca. 2490-2472 BCE. Limestone.

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Consists of a square base and 4 sloping triangular faces. The angled sides of pyramid meant to represent the slanting rays of sun; the deceased king was to climb up the rays to join the sun god Ra.Desire of rulers to commemorate themselves as divine beings.

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Great Sphinx, Giza, Egypt, Dynasty IV, 2520-2494 BCE, Sandstone

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Symbol of divine kingship. Composite creature – head of a ruler and the body of a lion. Could also be read as a giant hieroglyph “King departs”

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Khafre, from Giza, Egypt, ca. 2520-2494 BCE. Diorite.

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Medium/material: diorite, extremely hard stone.Function: resting place for pharaoh’s ka – the life force – to ensure immortality and permanence.Clothing -- a linen headdress with the cobra of kinship and a false beard.Throne: lions, intertwined lotus and papyrus plants (symbols of unification)

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Seated Scribe. Ca. 2500 BCE. Painted Limestone.

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The Temple of Ramses II, Abu Simbel, Egypt, 19th Dynasty, 1290-1224. Sandstone.

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the structure glorifies the enduring power of the king and his divinitytemple is carved out of the face of a cliff the dominant feature of the temple is a row of 4 colossal seated statues of the king himself (each 65 feet tall). Large figures of his wife and other family members stand next to his feet.

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Mask of Tutankhamen, c. 1323 BCE. Gold inlaid with enamel and semiprecious stones.

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The emblems on the forehead (vulture and cobra) -- symbols of Upper and Lower Egypt and divine authority. The Egyptian vulture: a tool-using bird. Considered to be close to Gods. The Egyptian Cobra: a protective symbol, the Egyptians believed that the cobra would spit fire at any approaching enemies.

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Akhenaton, from the temple of Aton, Karnak, Egypt, 18th Dynasty, ca. 1353-1335 BCE. Sandstone

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Akhenaton – radical transformation of the political, spiritual, and cultural life. -- He founded new, monotheistic religion (sun god Aton)

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Akhenaton, Nefertiti and three daughters, ca. 1353-1335 BCE, limestone

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Aton is represented as a round sun sending down rays ending in human hands-- New artistic conventions – emphasis on naturalism -- The royal couple receives the blessings of Aton -- Informal setting (depiction of emotions and interaction between characters represented)

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Figurine of a woman (Female Cycladic Idol), ca. 2500-2300 BCE. Marble.

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Had ample supplies of a fine and durable white marble

Produced abstracted representation of human figures (ranging from a few inches to 5 feet tall)

Marble -- the material of choice for sculptors.The tilted-back head, folded arms, and down-pointing toes indicate that the figure was intended to lie on its back, as if asleep or dead.Anatomical detail has been kept to a minimum: the body’s natural articulation lines at the hips, knees, and ankles are indicated, and the pubic area is marked with a lightly incised triangle. The statue originally had painted facial features, hair, and ornaments in red, blue, and black.Possible Function: funerary offering (found almost exclusively in graves).

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Female figurines appear to have been painted.Use of blue, red, and more rarely green paintUnlike the forms themselves, the painted features are often asymmetrical in organizationVariety of explanations for the meaning of these painted motifsPerhaps – references to the way Cycladic people decorated their own bodies (tattoos or scarification), applied either during their lifetime or to prepare their bodies for funeral

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Palace at Knossos, Crete, Greece, ca. 1700-1400 BCE.

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Palace – administrative, political, and religious center.Evans believed that Crete was ruled by a succession of kingsHowever, the evidence has suggested that Minoan society was not ruled by the kings drawn from a royal family but by a confederation of aristocratic familiesEarly buildings were made of rubble and mud-bricks faced with cut and finished local stoneColumns and other interior elements were made of wood

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Square-like plan and a large central courtyard. Multiple causeways and corridors (hence, labyrinth – the legend of Minotaur) Complex layout (multiple doors, dead-ends, etc.) provided the palace with security system

The centralized management of food. One of the storerooms had enough ceramic jars to hold 20,000 gallons of olive oil. The complex also included workshops – centralized manufacturing.

Multi-stored, flat-roofed buildings were designed to maximize light and air. Daylight and fresh air entered through open stairwells and air shafts and light-wells.

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Bull-leaping, ca. 1400-1379 BCE. Fresco

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Bull-leaping, ca. 1400-1379 BCE. Fresco

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Large scale – frescoes covered the entire walls. Wet fresco – the painters had to work quicklyMurals focus on human activity rather than the achievements of the ruler.Elegant drawing, linear contours filled with bright colors, a stylization (turned natural forms into decorative patterns)Bull-leaping – may represent an initiation or fertility ritual.

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Treasury of Atreus, ca. 1300-1250 BCE

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Architecturally sophisticated monuments

Tholos tomb – rounded, conical shape

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Geometric krater, ca. 8 century BCE. Terra-cotta

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funerary vase (a grave marker)-- detailed record of the funerary rituals (practice of cremation)-- human beings are depicted as part of narrative-- the abstract forms are used to represent human figures--figures are shown in either full-frontal or full-profile views (emphasis on flat patterns and outlined shapes)--no attempt to create the illusion of 3D forms occupying real space-- focus on emotional reactions of the survivors, not the fate of the dead

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Egyptian funerary art reflected the strong belief that the dead, in the afterworld, could continue to engage in activities they enjoyed while aliveFor the Greeks, the deceased entered a place of mystery and obscurity that living humans could not describe

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Kouros, ca. 600 BCE. Marble.

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Kouros, ca. 600 BCE, Marble-- often commissioned for a commemorative purpose (grave markers)--Kouros -- Young man-- recalls the pose and proportions of Egyptian sculpture--no emphasis on permanence (cut away all stone)--the figure’s anatomy is delineated-- Archaic smile-- total nudity (no identifying attributes)

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Peplos Kore, ca. 530 BCE, marble

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Peplos -- a draped rectangle of cloth, folded over at the top, pinned at the shoulders, and belted to give a bloused effect--motionless, vertical pose, but it is a more rounded, feminine figure

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Temple of Hera I, ca. 550 BCE

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-- temple is dedicated to Hera, the wife of ZeusGreek temples housed the cult statue, the altar was located outside the temple-- large, rectangular, stone post-and-lintel structure with a stepped foundation supporting a peristyle, a row of columns that surrounds the cella on all 4 sides-- elevation design illustrates Doric order.

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Exekias, Achilles and Ajax Playing a Dice Game, black figure amphora, c. 540-530 BCE.

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black-figure painting technique – the silhouetting of dark figures against a light background of natural clay with linear details incised through the silhouettes. -- vase is not divided into a series of bands-- figures echo the shape of the vessel

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Kritios Boy, ca. 480 BCE. Marble.

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move away from rigid, frontal presentation of the human figure-- more natural, lifelike qualities--contrapposto -- the boy’s weight rests on his left leg, and his right leg bends slightly at the knee

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Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear Bearer), Roman copy of original bronze, ca. 450-440 BCE. Marble

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- search for an ideal of physical perfection (regular face features, smooth skin, and particular body proportions)-- Polykleitos developed a set of rules for constructing an ideal human figure (the Canon)-- Canon – a system of ratios between a basic unit and the length of various body parts-- observation and generalization to create an ideal figure.-- Contrapposto-- the dynamically balanced body pose -- the pattern of tension and relaxation

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Iktinos and Kallikrates, Parthenon (Temple of Athena Parthenos), Athens, Greece, 447-438 BCE.

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-- monumental entrance to the Acropolis, Doric façade with Ionic
- there are no straight lines or right angles on the Parthenon-- optical refinements (the upward curvature of the steps; entasis; the inward tilting of the columns; the corner columns are thicker than the other columns)-- Doric architectural order with Ionic elements (continuous frieze)
Coherent stylistic sculptural decoration conveys several political and ideological themes: the triumph of the democratic Greek city-states over Persia’s imperial forces; the preeminence of Athens, and the triumph of Greek civilization over despotism and barbarism-- Parthenon is the central repository of the Athenians’ conception of themselves

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Erechtheion, Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 421-405 BCE.5-55.

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Asymmetrical planHoused several shrines and reflected uneven terrainThe site of the mythical contest between Athena and Poseidon for patronage over AthensPoseidon used his trident to produce a spout of waterAthena gave Athens an olive tree – won the contestIonic order – taller and more slender columns with volute capitals

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Kallikrates, Temple of Athena Nike Athens, Greece, 427-424 BCE

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Athena – goddess of victory in war;--Ionic order temple --Originally the temple was surrounded by a parapet (low wall), decorated with sculptural panels depicting Athena presiding over her attendants (Victories) as they prepared for celebration.

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Praxiteles, Aphrodite of Knidos. Roman copy after an original of ca. 350-340 BCE. Marble.

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the first statue to depict a fully nude woman-- the goddess is preparing to take a bath-- hand covering (and simultaneously pointing to) genitals -- a gesture of modesty (modest Venus). -- Seductive pose-- placed in an open shrine where people could see her from all sides

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Philixenos of Eretria (this name will not be on the test), Battle of Issus, ca. 310. Roman copy

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-- indicates a growing taste for a dramatic narrative subjects.-- violent action, gestures, and radical foreshortening meant to elicit the viewer’s response to a dramatic situation.-- interest in creating a believable illusion of the real world.

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Nike of Samothrace, ca. 190 BCE. marble

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-- theatrical composition-- The work probably commemorated an important naval victory.-- the forward momentum of the figure’s heavy body is balanced by the powerful backward thrust of her wings.-- the large, open movements of the figure, the strong contrasts of light and dark on the sculpted forms, and the contrasting textures of feathers, fabric, and skin typify the finest Hellenistic art.

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Athanadoros, Hagesandros, Polydoros of Rhodes (the names of these sculptors will not be on the test), Laocoon and his sons, 1st century BCE. Marble.

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the complex composition illustrates an episode from the Trojan war. -- struggling figures, diagonal movement, unification of diverse forces in a complex composition.