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285 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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the study of the structures of the body, and the relationshop among structures. Word itself means "to cut up" |
anatomy
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The study of how the body functions.
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Physiology
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The "what" and "where" of the body.
The "how" of the body |
What and Where: anatomy
How: physiology |
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How is the human body organized?
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atom, molecule, macromolecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
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to maintain a fairly constant internal environment in spite of a changing external environment
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homeostasis
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what are the parts that make up a feedback loop? (3)
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1. control center
2. receptors that monitor changes 3. effectors recieve information from the control center and produce a responce. |
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____ feedback causes the variable to change in a direction opposite to that of the initial change, returning it to its "ideal" value and give an example
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negative: sweating and shivering
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___ feedback brings a process to completion. and Example
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positive: child birth or blood clotting
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a homeostatic imbalance
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disease
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subjective changes that are not apparent to an observer.
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sympotms
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objective changes which can be observed or measured
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signs
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Standar body postition where the body is erect with the feet slightly apart. thumbs point away from the body.
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anatomical position
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what makes up the axial portion of the body?
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head, neck, and trunk
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what makes up the appendicular portion?
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appendages (limbs)
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the centermost region deep to and surrounding the umbilicus.
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umbilical region
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region that is located superior to the umbilical region
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epigastric region
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region that is located inferior to the umbilical region
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hypogastric region
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regions that are located lateral to the hypogastric region
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right and left iliac or inguinal region
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regions that lie lateral to the umbilical region
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right and left lumbar regions
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regions that lie lateral to the epigastric region
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right and left hypochondriac regions
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what are the two major cavities in the axial portion of the body?
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dorsal and ventral cavity
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what subdivisions of cavities are in the dorsal cavity?
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cranial cavity and vertebral cavity
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what two major subdivision of cavities are in the ventral body cavity?
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Thoracic and abdomino-pelvic cavity
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what cavities are subdivions in the thoracic cavity?
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superior mediastinum, pleural cavity, pericardial cavity within the mediastinum
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what cavities are subdivions in the abdomino-pelvic cavity?
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abdominal and pelvic cavity
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where are the physical separations between cavities and where are the imaginary boundaries?
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physical: diaphragm (separates throatic cavity from abdomino-pelvic cavity), and spinal cord (separates the ventral body cavity from the dorsal body cavity)
Imaginary: everywhere else. |
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what are the three sets of serous membranes that line the ventral cavities?
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parietal serosa, visceral serosa, and serous cavity
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what are the parietal serosa, visceral serosa, and serous cavity?
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parietal serosa: outer membrane
visceral serosa: inner membrane serous cavity: space inbetween parietal and visceral serosa filled with fluid |
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the smallest unit of an element that still has the chemical properties of that element.
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atom
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what is the significance of the number of electrons in the outer most orbiral of an atom?
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it determines how each atom interacts with other atoms
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substances which cannot be split into simpler substances by ordinary chemical reactions
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elements
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atoms of an element that all have the same number of protons, but have different numbers of neutrons
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isotopes
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how is isotopes used in medicine?
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isotopes is used as radioisotopes which are used for diagnosis
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when two or more stoms combine in a chemical reaction
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molecule
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where is the energy stored in a molecule? (forms of poteintal energy)
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in the chemical bonds
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when a molecule contains two or more atoms of different elements
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compound
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a chemical bond between atoms formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atoms to the other.
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ionic bond
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what holds the atoms together in an ionic bond?
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opposite charges
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a charged particle
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ion
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a positively charged ion
a negatively charged ion |
(+): cation
(-): anion |
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bonds formed when atoms share electrons. (strongest bond)
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covalent bonds
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bonds that are the weakest. formed when a H atom, already covalently linked to one electronegative atom is attracted by another electron-hungry atom. ("bridge" forms)
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H bond
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when one end of a molecule ha a (+) charge and the other has a (-) charge
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polar
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when molecues have a more uniform distribution of charges they are ____.
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nonpolar
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Polar molecules are ____.
Nonpolar molecules are ____. |
polar: hydrophillic
Non: Hydrophobic |
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a reaction that makes a bond which requires the input of energy?
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endogonic or endothermic
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a reaction that breaks a bond which usually releases energy
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exergonic or exothermic
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what is the synthesis reaction?
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A+B -> AB
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what is thedecomposition reaction?
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AB -> A+B
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what is an exchange reaction?
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AB + CD -> AD + BC
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reaction whose end products can revert to the original combining molecules.
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AB <-> A+B
reverse reactions |
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all other compounds that aren't organic which includes CO2, O2, H2O, acids, bases, and salts.
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inorganic compounds
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one or more Hydrogen ions (H+) and one or more anions
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acids
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hydroxide ion (OH-) and one or more cations
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bases
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ionizes into anions and cations, either H or OH.
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salts
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the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration.
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pH
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the more hydrogen ions a solution has, the ____ the pH is.
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lower
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resists abrupt and large swings in the pH of body fluids by releasing hydrogen ions when the pH begins to rise and by binding H ions when the pH drops.
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buffers
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compounds that contain carbon, and sometimes H, O and N.
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organic molecules
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large organic molecules
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macromolecules
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many similar or repeating molecules
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monomers
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many monomers liked together
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polymer
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a group of molecules that includes sugars, starches, glycogen, and cellulose.
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carbohydrates
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what is the general chemical formula for carbs?
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Cx(H20)y
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what monomers make up complex carbs? (polysaccharides)
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polymers
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how are sugars used in the body?
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its used to provide a ready, easy used sorse of cellular fuel.
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what is the word ending that signifies a sugar?
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saccharides
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insoluble in water but dissolve readiling in others like them and in organic solvents such as alcohol and ether.
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lipids
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how are carbs and lipids alike and different?
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lipids have C, H, and O like carbs but have a lower # of O and it also will be found sometimes with P.
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are lipids nonpolar or polar?
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non
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what is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
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saturated: no dbl bonds
unsaturated: has one or more dbl bonds |
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what are omega-3 or omgea-6 fatty acids?
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omega-3: a family of unsaturated fatty acids that have in common a final carbon–carbon double bond in the n−3 position; that is, the third bond from the methyl end of the fatty acid.
omega-6: last dbl bond is in the N-6 position. |
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why are Omega-3 and omega-6 beneficial to the body?
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found in fish, appear to decrease the risk of heart disease and some inflammatory diseases
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diglycerides with a phosphorus-containing group and two, rather than three, fatty acid chains.
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phospholipids
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one molecule that has both a polar and nonpolar end.
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amphipathic molecule
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a fatty acid that has glyceral and 2 fatty acids tails
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gylcolipids
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flat molecules made of four interlocking hydrocarbon rings that are fat soluble and contain little O.
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steroids
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where and how is cholesterol used in the body?
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in arteriosclerosis but also found in cell membranes and is the raw material for synthesis of vitamin D, steroid hormones and bile salts.
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dicerse lipids chiefly derived from a 20-C fatty acid found in all cell membranes.
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eicosaniods
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what is the main eicosaniod and what does it do?
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prostaglandins and it plays roles in various body processes like blood clotting, regulation of high blood pressure, inflammation, and labor contractions
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what elements are found in proteins and what element is not found in carbs or lipids?
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C,H, O and N.
N is not found in carbs or lipids |
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how do proteins function in the body?
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construction materials, and in cell function
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why is the shape of a protein so important?
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the shape determines its function
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how many AA are used in the Human Body?
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20
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what is the basic structure of an AA?
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Has an R group, amine group (-NH2) and a acid group (-COOH)
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Protein structure: the sequence of AA forms the polypeptide chain.
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primary
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Protein structure: the primary chain forms spirals and sheets
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secondary
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Protein structure: a-helices and or B-sheets are folded up to form a compact gloubular molecule held together by intramolecular bonds
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tertiary
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Protein structure: two or more polypeptide chaings combine to form a functional protein
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quaternary
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How does changes in pH affect proteins?
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it affects the electrical charge of protein (configuation and binding properties) and organization of structural proteins
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how does changes in ionic strength affect proteins?
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the structure and activity of proteins
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substances that regulate and accelerate the rate of biochemical reactions but are not used up or changed in those reactions.
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cataylsts
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globular proteins that act as biological catalysts.
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enzymes
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metal ion or organic molecule that is required for enzyme activity.
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cofactor
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nonprotein substance associated with and activating an enzyme, typically a vitamin.
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coenzyme
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what is the suffix for enzymes?
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-ase
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proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to their polypeptide side-chains.
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Glycoprotein
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glycoproteins that are heavily glycosylated. They have a core protein with one or more covalently attached glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chain(s).
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Proteogylcans
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what elements are found in nucleic acids?
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C, H, O, N, P
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What are three differences between DNA and RNA?
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1. DNA: uses A, T, C, G
RND: uses A, U, C, G 2. DNA: uses deoxyribose RNA: uses ribose 3. DNA: dbl stranded RNA: single stranded |
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what monomers make up nucleic acid and what 3 parts make up those monomers?
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nucleotides make up nucleic acid
nucleotides are made up of sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base |
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why is ATP so important to cells?
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it is the cells energy source.
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what is the cell theory? (4)
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1. are the building blocks
2. are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions 3. maintains homeostasis 4. come from the division of preexisting cells |
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what is the composition of the plams membrane?
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phospholipid
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what is meant by the fact that the plasma membrane is selectively permeable?
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it allows fat soluble substances to pass through and some other small, unchanged molecules
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the fuzzy, sticky, carbohydrate-rich area at the cell surface.
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glycocalyx
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what is the function of glycocalyx?
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provideds highly specific bological markers by which approaching cells recognize each other.
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what role does cholesterol play in the cell membrane?
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it stabilizes it.
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how do proteins function in the cell membrane? (6)
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anchor, recognize, receptors, carriers, channels, and enzymes
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series of integrated protein molecules in the plasms membranes of adjacent cells fuse together forming an impermeable junction.
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tight junction
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what function does a tight junction do?
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helps prevent molecules from passing through the extracellular space between adjacent cells
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anchoring junctions, mechanical couplings scattered like rivets slong the sides of abutting cells that prevent their separation.
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desmosomes
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what is the function of desmosomes?
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bind neighboring cells together and contribute to a continuous internal network of strong "guy-wires"
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tubular channels(connexons) that connect the cytoplasm of one cell with that of another.
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gap junctions
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how do gap junctions function in cell to cell communication?
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they allow ions and small molecules to pass from one cell to the next for intercellular communication
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helps form temporary attachements to other cells.
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Cellular Adhesion Molecules (CAM)
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how does substances enter and leave the cell?
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passively and activily
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substances cross the membrane without any enregy input from the cell.
the cell provides the metabolic energy needed to move substances across the membrane. |
Passive process; active process
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what factors determine which substances can pass throught the membrane in a passive process?
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depends on the concentration and kinetic energy
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which substances can pass throught the membrane in an active process?
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depends on the use of energy,
also Na/K, Ca, Mg, I, Cl, Fe |
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dynamic addemblies of saturated phospholipids associated with unique lipids called sphingolipids and lots of cholesterol.
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lipid rafts
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assumed to be concentrating platforms fro certain receptor molecules or for molecules needed for cell signaling.
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lipid rafts
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when molecules or ions move from an area where they are in higher concentration to an area where they are in lower concentration
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diffusion
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what does the rate of diffusion depend on?
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temp, gradient size, distance, molecule size, and electrical forces
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the movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
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osmosis
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what happens to a cell when it is placed in a isotonic solution?
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retain their normal shape, and exhibit no net loss or gain of water.
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what happens to a cell when it is placed in a hypertonic solution?
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it loses water and shrink or crenate
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what happens to a cell when it is placed in a hypotonic solution?
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water rushes into the cells until it bursts or lyse
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transmembrane proteins that allows water to move freely and reversibly by water-specific channels
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aquaporins
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why does osmosis occur faster than solute diffusion?
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bc the membrane is permeable to water and impermeable to solutes. water is free to move in and out until reaches equal concentrations
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passive transport process used by certain molecules that are too large to pass through plasma membrane pores. involves movement through channesl or my a carrier.
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facilitated diffusion
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what are the saturation limits in regards to facilitated diffusion?
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the number of protein carriers present and the consentration gradient
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membrane transport process for which ATP is required
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active process
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moves substances up the concentration gradient with the use of carrier proteins
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active transport
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what systems are called pumps?
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active transport
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an active transport system that moves two transported substances in the same direction
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symport system or cotransport
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an active transpot system that moves one substance in and one substance out at the sam time
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countertransport or antiport system
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where is the energy used in a symport system?
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to pump one substance back out
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the movement of large particels and macromolecules across a plasma membrane
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vesicular transport
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a vesicular transport that moves substances outside the cell.
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exocytosis
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a vesicular transport that moves substances inside the cell.
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endocytosis
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a vesicular transport that engulfs extracellular fluid
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pinocytosis
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a vesicula transport that engulfs foreign solids
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phagocytosis
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one of three types of endocytosis in which engulfed particels attach to receptors before endocytosis occurs
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receptor-medicated endocytosis
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a conbination process in vesicular transport which moves substances into, across, and then out of the cell and from one area or orgfanelle in the cell to another
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transcytosis
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a protein coating foun on the cytplasmic face of the coated pit which acts both in cargo selection and in deforming the membrane to produce the vesicle.
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clathrin
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in exocytosis, transmembrane proteins on the vesicles that recognizes certain plasma membrane proteins that binds with them. what are they?
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v-SNAREs (v for vesicle)
t-SNAREs (t for target) |
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the cellular material between the plasms membrane and the nucleus. the site where most cellular activites are accomplished
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cytoplasm
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the viscous, semitransparent fluis in which the other cytoplamic elements are suspended.
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cytosol
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rodlike, dbl-membrane structures; inner membrane folded into projections called cristae.
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mitochondria
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sit of ATP synthesis; powerhouse of the cell
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mitochondria
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dense particles consisting of two subunits, each compose of ribosomal RNA and protein. ree or attached to rough ER.
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ribosomes
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the sitse of protein synthesis.
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ribosomes
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membrane system enclosing a cavity, the cisternam and coiling through the cytoplasm. externally studded with ribosomes
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Rough ER
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sugar groups are attached to porteins within the cisternae. Proteins are bound in vesicles for transport to the Golgi apparatus and other sites. external face sunthesizes phospholipids
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Rough ER
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membrane systems of sacs and tubules; free of ribosomes
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smooth ER
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sit of lipid and steroid (cholesterol) synthesis, lipid metabolism and frug detoxification.
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smooth ER
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a stack of smooth membrane sacs and associated vesicels close to the nucleus.
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golgi apparatus
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packages, modifies, and segragates proteins for secretion from the cell, inclusion in lysosomes, and incorporation into the plasma membrane.
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golgi apparatus
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membranous sacs containing acid hydrolases.
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lysosomes
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sites of intacellular digestion
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lysosomes
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hollow cylinders which contain protein-digesting enzymes.
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proteasomes
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removes and recycles damaged or denatured proteins and also plays a role in the immune response
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proteasomes
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membrane bound sacs that are formed durng endocytosis or by golgi apparatus.
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vesicles
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used for transport and to renew membrane
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vesicles
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lysosomes that contain inactive enzymes that work at low pH levels
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primary lysosomes
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membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
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peroxisomes
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the enzymes detoxify a number of toxic substances. the most important enzyme, catalase, breaks down hydrogen perozide.
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peroxisomes
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cylindrical structures made of tubulin proteins
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microtubules
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support the cell and give it shape. involved in intracellular and cellular movements. form centrioles and cilia and flagella, if present.
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microtubules
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fine filaments composed of the protein actin
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microfilaments
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involved in muscle contraction and other types of intracellular movement, help form the cell's cytoskeleton
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microfilaments
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protein fibers; composition varies.
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intermediate filaments
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the stable cytoskeletal elements; resist mechanical forces actin on the cell.
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intermediate filaments
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paired cylindrical bodies, each composed of nine triplets of microtubules.
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centrioles
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organize a microtubule network during mitosis to form the spindle and asters. from the bases of cilia and flagella
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centrioles
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baried; includes stored nutrients such as lipid droplets and glycogen granules, protein crystals, pigment granules.
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inclusions
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stroage for nutrients, wastes, and cell products.
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inclusions
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short cell-surface projections; each composed of nine pairs of microtubules surrounding a central pair.
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cilia
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coordinated movement creates a unidirectional current that propels substances across cell surfaces
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cilia
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like cilium, but longer; only example in humans is the sperm tail.
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flagella
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propel the cell.
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flagella
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largest organelle. surrounded by the nuclear envelope; contains nucleoplasm, nucleoli, and chromatin.
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nucleus
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control center of the cell; responsible for transmitting genetic infromation and providing the instructions for protein synthesis.
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nucleus
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double-membrane structure peirced by pores. outer memb rane continuous with the ER.
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nuclear envelope
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separates the nucleoplasm from the cytoplasm and regulates passage of substances to and from the nucleus.
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nuclear envelope
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dense spherical bodies, composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins. (non-membrane-bounded)
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nucleoli
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sit of ribosome sununit manufacture
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nucleoli
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microtubules that are achored at one end in an inconspicuous region near the nucleus
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centrosome
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acts as a microtubule organizing center.
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centrosome
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in the cell cycle, the period from cell formation to cell division.
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interphase
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during this phase in the cell cycle, the DNA-containing material is in the form of chromatin. the nuclear envelope and one or more nucleoli are intact and visible.
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interphase
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one of the three periods in interphase when the centrioles begin replicating
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G1 phase
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one of three periods in interphase where DNA is replicated.
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S (synthesis) phase
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one of three periods in interphase where the final preparations for mitosis are completed and centroles finish replicating.
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G2 phase
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the first stage of mitosis, consitsing of coiling of the chromosomes accompanied by migration of the two daughter centrolies toward the poles of the cell, and nuclear membrane breakdown
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prophase
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second stage of mitosis where the two centrosomes are at opposite poles of the cell and the chromosomes cluster at the middle of the cell, with their centromere precisely aligned at the equator of the spindle.
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metaphase
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the third and shorest phase of mitosis. it begins abruptly as the centromeres of the chromosome split simultaneously. each chromatid now becomes a chromosome in its own right.
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anaphase
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begins as soon as chromosomal movement stops. the final phaseis like prophase in reverse.
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telophase
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two identical threas calles chromatids held together at a small constricted reion calles a _____.
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centromere
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special protein structures at each chromosomes's centromere where the growing spindel microtubules attach
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kinetochores
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what role does centrioles play in mitosis?
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they organize microtubule network to form spindle and asters
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what is the difference between mitosis and cytokinesis?
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mitosis is the division of cells and cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm
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cells that retain the ability to divide and differentiate.
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stem cells
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how many times can a cell divide?
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depends on the type of cell
every time a cell divides it loses a telomere. the cell will divide until it only have 2 left. |
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the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type
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cell differentiation
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a normal cell that will self distruct ans srivel up. "clean death"
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apoptosis
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naturally occurring substance capable of stimulating cellular growth, proliferation and cellular differentiation. Usually it is a protein or a steroid hormone. are important for regulating a variety of cellular processes.
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growth factor
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How does growth factors affect cell division?
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They often promote cell differentiation and maturation
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the natural process of arresting cell growth when two or more cells come into contact with each other.
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cell inhibition
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___ tumors that remain in a single location
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benign
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___ tumors that can spreas of metastasize (cancerous)
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malignant
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gene that, when mutated or expressed at high levels, helps turn a normal cell into a tumor cell
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oncogenes
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a gene that protects a cell from one step on the path to cancer
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tumor suppressor gene
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what can cause a cell to lose control over cell division?
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Heritability
transplantability dedifferentiation loss of contact inhibition ability to induce local blood vessel formation invasiveness and ability to metastasize |
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how does a person's ability to maintain homesostasis vary over its lifetime.
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some homeostasis mechanisms are not fully developed at the time of birth and the gradually become less efficient as people age.
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what aspects of homeostasis is maintained within narrow limits?
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regulatory mechanisms
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what factors regulate or influence enzyme activity?
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end-product inhibition
intracellular regulatory proteins phosphorylation or dephosphorlyation ionic environment (hydrogen ion concentration, ionic strength, and calcium ion concentration) |
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a strategy for refulating systems in the body, particularly when a change with time is desired. it usually acts in combination with negative-feedback systems.
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feedforward control
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what is an example of feedforward control?
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heart rate and breathing increase even before a person has begun to exercise.
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what are the components of a negative feedback system?
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sensor, controller, and effector.
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the term ____ can apply to a single or several compartments that have the same amount or concentration of a substance in a compartemtnt that is constant.
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steady state
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the term _____ describes the relation between at least two adjacent compartments that can exchange matter or energy with each other when its opposing forces are equal
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equilibrium
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How does gap junctions function in the growth and differentiation of cells?
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they allow adjacent cells to share a common intracellular environment.
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signaling that occurs when a chemical is liberated from a cell, diffuses a short distance through interstitial fluid, and acts on nearby cells.
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paracrine signaling
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signaling that occurs when the cell releases a chemical into the interstitial fluid that affects its own activity by binding to a receptor on its own surface
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autocrine signaling
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how does the nervous system function?
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neurotransmitters are released from the nerve terminals into the synapse. receptors on the synapse bind to the neurotransmitters
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how does the endocrine system function?
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it produces hormones in respone to a variety of stimuli. the hormones are carried by the bloodstream to the particular cell that responds to the specific receptor for the hormone.
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how does the endocrine and nervous system overlap?
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1. the nervous system excerts important controls over the endoctine gland function
2. specialized nerve cells secrete hormones. 3. many proven or potential neurotransmitters found in nerve terminals are also well-known hormones |
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refers to any process by which a cell converts one kind of signal or stimulus into another. Most processes of ______ involve ordered sequences of biochemical reactions inside the cell, which are carried out by enzymes and activated by second messengers
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signal transduction
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extracellular signals that activate the signaling system
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first messenger
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in the pathway during signaling system ____ are additional intracellular messengers.
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second messenger
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how do G proteins function?
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a hormone binds to a activated receptor which then interacts with the inactive GDP-bound G protein. this interaction causes the activation of the G protein which exchanges the GDP to GTP and separates the alpha subunit from the beta and gama subunit. the alpha subunit of the G protein then interacts with the membrane proein adenylyl cyclase to catalyze the conversion of ATP to cAMP.
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function as "molecular switches," alternating between an inactive guanosine diphosphate (GDP) and active guanosine triphosphate (GTP) bound state, ultimately going on to regulate downstream cell processes.
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G protein
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how is calcium used in cells as a second messenger?
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second messengers causes intracellular changes that ultimately leade to a cell response. in a calcium-induces calcium release, the influx of calcium throught the membrane calcium channels leased to an explosive release of calcium which then activates the contractile machinery in the heart.
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How is calcium used in cells as a second messenger a positive feedback?
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the release of cytoslic calcium can bind to the receptor to enhance further calcium release.
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pore-forming proteins that help establish and control the small voltage gradient across the plasma membrane of all living cells (see cell potential) by allowing the flow of ions down their electrochemical gradient
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ion channel
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are a group of transmembrane ion channels that are opened or closed in response to the binding of a chemical messenger
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gated ion channel
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how can a gated ion channel be opened or closed?
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by changing the membrane potential or by the binding of ligands.
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How do lipid soluble hormones affect cell functioning?
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they freely diffuse throught both the plasma and nuclear membrane
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does a certain messenger elicit the same response in every cell of the body?
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no, because if the messenger binds to a receptor, the receptor may be specialized for many different actions
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How can the binding of a ligand to a receptor result in the amplification of the signal inside the cell?
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by activating specific effector molecules and generating a second messenger.
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what is a common method of truning proteins "on" and "off" in a cell?
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hormones binding to their receptors
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what happens to the rate of diffusion in facilitated diffusion as the number of solute molecule increases?
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it doesnt increase the rate of diffusion
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what are 4 characheristics of equilibrating carrier-meditated transport systems?
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1. allow transport of polar molecules at higher rates
2. they reach saturation at high substrate concentration 3. have structural specificity 4. they have competitive inhibition with similar chemical structures. |
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integral membrane proteins that directly use metabolic energy to trasport ions against a gradient of concentration or electrical potential.
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primary active transport
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specific pump blockers that inhibit pumps.
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digitalis
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what type of ATPase does mitochondria have and is it different from the other pumps?
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F-type ATPase; it functions in reverse (instead of useing ATP is synthesizes ATP)
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a type of anitporters where there is no net movement of charge.
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electroneutral system
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a type of antiporters where ther is a net movement of charge.
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electrogenic system
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junction that prevent proteins on the apical membran from migrating to the basilateral membrane and vice versa. thus the entry and exit steps for splutes can be localized to opposite sides of the cell. this is the key to transcelluylar transport across epithelial cells.
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tight junctions
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why are more cells susceptible to changes in solute concentration than others?
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because when a cell enterins in either a diluted solution or a more concentraed solution the cells with either swell or shrink.
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the measure of solute concentration, defined as the number of osmoles of solute per liter of solution
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osmolality
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a measure of the osmotic pressure of two solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane
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tonicity
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how do cells maintain the resting membrane potential?
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by maintaince of the steady state with ion concentrations inside the cell different from those outside the cell.
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a thermodynamic measure that combines the concepts of energy stored in the form of chemical potential and electrostatics.
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electrochemical potential
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How does electrochemical potential affect the movement of ions across the plasma membrane
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when a difference in electrical potential exisits, (+) ions tend to move toward the (-) side, while (-) ions tend to move toward the (+) side.
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sum total of the chemical reactions occurring in the body cells.
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metabolism
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process in which living cells break down substance into simpler substances
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catabolism
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energy-requiring building phase of metabolism in which simpler substances are combined to form more complex substances
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anabolism
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metal ion or organic molecule that is required for enzyme activity.
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cofactor
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nonprotein substance assiociated with an activating an enzyme.
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coenzyme
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what are the four steps in cellular respiration?
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1. glycolysis
2. formation of acetyl-CoA 3. krebs cycle 4. oxidative phosphorylation or electron transport chain |
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in cellular respiration, what takes place in the cytosol and what take place in the mitochondrion?
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Cytosol: glycolysis
Mitochondrion: krebs and oxidative phosphorylation |
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a reaction that couples the oxidation (loss of electrons) of one substance with the reduction (gain of electrons) of another substance
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redox reaction
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how does a substance become reduced? Oxidized? In a cell, can one occur without the other?
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Reduced: gain of electron
Oxidized: loss of electron Occurance must be together |
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what do NAD ans FAD do in cellular respiration?
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they are coenzymes of the oxidative pathways
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where is oxygen used in cellular respiration?
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O2 comes in at the end of electron transport chain. it is the final electron acceptor in electron transport chain.
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what is the end product of glycolysis?
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two pyruvic acid molecules
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does glycolysis by itself require oxygen?
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no it does not
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how much energy is produced by one molecule of glucose by glycolysis alone?
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4 molecules are formed
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what are the produce of the krebs cycle?
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two CO2
three NADH + H one FADH |
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how does the electron transport chain work?
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electrons are transferred from complex to complex and some of the eneregy is used tp pump protons into the intermembrane space, creating a proton gradient. the protons then enter thro the ATP synthase back across the inner mitochonrial membrane
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brightly colored iron-containing proteins that form part of the inner mitochondrial membrane and function as electron carriers in oxidative phosphorylation
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cytochromes
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what is the cell's energy currency and why?
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ATP; it serves as the chemical drive shaft that liks energy-releasing catabolic reactions to cellular work
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what happens when there is no O present in the electron transport chain?
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it can not occur. its O required
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the diffusion of ions across a selectively-permeable membrane. More specifically, it relates to the generation of ATP by the movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane during cellular respiration.
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chemiosmosis
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where does chemiosmosis take place?
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oxidation phosphorylation
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what substances can be broken doen to obtain energy by cellular respiration?
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mostly glucose
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what is more efficient: glycolysis alone or the entire process of cellular respiration?
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the entire process of cellular respiration because it produces about 32 ATP and glycolysis only produces a net of 2 ATP
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what is the chemical formula for cellular resparation?
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C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O
Glucose + Oxygen -> Carbon dioxide + water |
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what is oxygen debt?
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when we dont have enough oxygen to function
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why is the krebs cycle called a cycle?
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because when oxaloacetic acid is formed again, its ready to repeat again.
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what is the energy released during oxidative phosphorylation used for?
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to push H ions up a concentration gradient
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what function does F-ATPase do in chemiosmosis?
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it is the enzyme that is used in the mitochondrion to synthesis ATP. In chemiosmosis, it uses H ions to produce ATP.
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