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20 Cards in this Set
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Kremlin |
is a fortified citadel within a Russian city, the best known of which is located in the heart of Moscow and contains churches, palaces and government headquarters. This is where the issue of succession to the throne was held and was also where the Church held its councils. Under the rule of Ivan the Great in the 15th century, the Moscow Kremlin would become the center of the unified Russian state, even after the capitol of Russia shifted to St. Petersburg. |
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Boyars |
were Russia’s landed warrior nobles who were granted lands and privileges for their allegiance to Moscow and Ivan the Great in the latter half of the 15th century. Boyars served the king as military leaders, administrators and dominated over the lower class of serfs. This title was gained hereditary but the king had the power to strike the title or elevate a family to this status. |
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Domostroi
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meaning “household order”, was a key work regarding family life written by the Russian clergy under Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century. This manual counseled men to discipline their wives and children severely, beating them to instill obedience. It instructed wives to rely on their husbands for advice and support. It also deemed disease and a punishment from God that should be treated by prayer, fasting and religious rituals. The Domostoi reflects a patriarchal Muscovite society, including peasant villages that were run by assembles of male elders. |
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Ivan the Terrible
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would inherit the throne at age three. His father would grant more power to the boyars so they would swear loyalty to their new young ruler. This created competition between the boyars; Ivan IV would grow up in an atmosphere of a murderous and treasonous court. Ivan reformed tax based on productivity and began trade with Poland and Lithuania but would begin a reign of terror after his wife’s death. Ivan consolidated his power with territorial expansion and the institution of the streltsy, who hunted down disloyal boyars. Ivan would also unleash the wrath of his troops on Novgorod in 1570 in response to rumors of a plot against him and would also kill his son and heir in a fit of rage. |
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Peter the Great
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became enamored with western culture while living near the foreigner village outside Moscow. He would take control of the Russian rule over his regent and co-tsar. He then began to reform Russian administrations, economy and military after Europe’s western powers. Peter would war with Sweden to gain access to the Baltic Sea to establish trade connections to the west. He would establish the city of St. Petersburg in 1703 and would name it Russian’s new capital and window to the west. Although he transformed Russia in the image of western powers, Russian society did not change much as Peter’s navy and great cities were built with serf labor. |
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Estates General
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was an assembly of delegates that had the ability to restrict the king’s power and was formed of the three estates of France; the nobles, the clergy, and the remaining 98% of the population. France was facing bankruptcy so King Louis XVI summoned the assembly in 1788 in order to reform the tax system, although they had not previously convened since 1614. The 3rd estate would protest the traditional system that left them with minority vote and would establish the National Assembly, taking the first steps toward revolution. |
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Reign of Terror
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defines the height of violence during the French Revolution. The Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre, had been given authority to protect France from foreign and domestic enemies. The violence was exacerbated by Marat who had been publishing names in newspaper of “known” conspirators. By 1794 the committee had sent hundreds of thousands of people suspected of opposing the revolution to the guillotine. Among those beheaded included Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, in effort to rid France indefinitely of the Monarchy so that a new form of government could be born. |
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Maximillian Robespierre |
was a French lawyer and politician who became among the most influential figures of the French Revolution in 1789. He opposed slavery and, initially, the death penalty. He was an advocate of equal rights and universal male suffrage. He became the head of the Committee of Public Safety which would enact the levee en masse, calling the whole country to service to protect France from foreign enemies, while tribunals were established to deal with domestic enemies. These tribunals lead to the Reign of Terror which condemned thousands to be beheaded. His leadership would help drive much of the revolution and he would play a key role in the execution of King Louis XVI and the overturning of the monarchy in effort to establish a new government for France. Although he was viewed as “the incorruptible”, the Revolution would catch up with him and he, too, would be sent to the guillotine. |
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Napoleonic Code
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was Napoleon Bonaparte’s codification of French Laws established in 1804. The code forbade privilege based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs and promotions would be awarded to the most qualified. This ensured the integrity of private property while guaranteeing all male citizens equality before the law. This was a major step in replacing the patchwork of the previous feudal laws and stabilizing France after the Revolution. It was the first legal code to be adopted in a pan-European scope and it strongly influenced many countries formed during and after the Napoleonic Wars. |
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Congress of Vienna
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was a conference of ambassadors of European nations in 1814 that met in response to the effects of the Napoleonic Wars. The congress was directed by Austria’s Prince Klemes von Metternich and was in intended to address three principles. The first regarded legitimacy, the right of former rulers to regain lost positions. The second principle was compensation to nations that had sacrificed lives and resources in the conflict. The third principal was balance of power, an effort to maintain peace by not allowing any one nation to become strong enough to impose the will of other nations or to dominate Europe as Napoleon had. The borders of Europe would be redrawn and the Holy Roman Empire would be replaced by the Germanic Confederation, the Kingdom of the Netherlands would be established to check French power, and Poland would be reconstituted. Metternich would also enact the Congress System, persuading the congress to continue to meet periodically to address problems to prevent wars and revolutions |
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Toussaint L’Ouverture
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Led the slave rebellion at Sant-Domingue in 1791 as the French Colony’s free citizens turned to civil war regarding the changes in France due to the French Revolution. L’Ouverture would construct a well-disciplined fighting force of twenty thousand men and would ally with France to defend against the English and Spanish who threatened L’Ouverture’s efforts for freedom. As France moved to restore slavery, L’Ouventure would defeat their mother country with malaria and yellow fever contributing to his success. His efforts made Sant-Domingue the second colony to break from its mother country but having a more social and racial implication than that of the American Revolution. L’Ouventure efforts energized an anti-slave movement in Britain which led to Britain banning the slave trade and pressuring other nations to end the trafficking of humans as well. |
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Nationalism |
is an intense devotion to one’s own cultural and linguistic group and to its embodiment in a unified, independent state. The concept was initially born in 1780, reacting to the widespread emulation of French ideals; suggesting that each nationality was uniquely rooted to their language, literature, customs, and culture. This idea stirred great pride amongst people and would culminate with the unification of both Italy and Germany in the second half of the 19th century. However, nationalism would also lead to oppression, exclusion, and forced assimilation |
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Karl Marx
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was a German philosopher and sociologist. Looking at economy as the basis of any society, his concepts pitted the rich against the poor in an ongoing class struggle. He suggested that the class controlling the economic resources also controlled political, legal, religious, and military institutions. He co-authored The Communist Manifesto in 1848, presenting an analytical approach to the class struggle, the problems of capitalism, and capitalist mode of production. He theorized that the working class would unite and overthrow the upper classes, creating a proletarian dictatorship with a classless social society. He provided a compelling explanation for industrial Europe’s turmoil and a vision for a brighter future for the exploited masses. |
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Florence Nightingale
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was a celebrated English social reformer, who was originally from Florence, Italy. She came to prominence for her efforts while serving as a nurse during the Crimean War in 1853. High death rates resulting from the war that were attributed to disease and inadequate care inspired her to professionalize the practice of nursing. Her efforts led to better health care, better treatment, and paved the way for providing career opportunities for women. |
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Caudillo
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were a type of political leader who came to power in the 19th century wars of independents in Latin America. The first caudillos were often general that lead private armies and used their military might to establish power in newly independent states. Many were landowners who sought to advance their own private interests and began their careers opposing the oligarchy. However, they often became oligarchs themselves and rarely upset the existing social order by failing to achieve enduring institutional stability and sustaining economic growth. |
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Tupac Amaru II
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was the leader of an indigenous uprising in 1780 against the Spanish in Peru. He claimed to be a decedent of the last Inca ruler of the same name. Latin American rebellions erupted from American born Spaniards who were not trusted by the Spanish king and their resentment of the Peninsulares that monopolized the government, as the king controlled them directly through their families and property. Tupac’s efforts were inspired by the French Enlightenment and he aimed to remove corrupt colonial officials, end forced labor service, and better working conditions in mines. His intentions, however, did not challenge the legitimacy of Spanish colonial rule or to expel the Spanish from America. Although his efforts failed, Tupac would continue to inspire the Peruvian struggle for independence and indigenous rights movements well after his death.
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Benito Juarez
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Served as the president of Mexico for five terms. He increased free trade, created a national school system, and gave freedom and land to lower classes. Civil war in 1862 pitted him against conservatives who did not like how he was running the country. Although Juarez won the civil war, the conservatives still wanted him removed. They made a deal with Napoleon who sent money and armies to their aid and helped establish the Second Mexican Empire. Juarez was able to resist the French occupancy, overthrow the Second Mexican Empire, he restored the Republic, and use liberal measures to modernize Mexico.
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Taiping Rebellion
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was a massive civil war in Southern China against the Qing dynasty that began in 1850. The perception that the Qing had lost of the mandate of heaven following the effects of the First Opium War that led to European exploitation of Chinese trade restriction and law and opium addiction. The rebellion was led by Christian convert Hong Xiuquan who intended to expel the Qing, the Europeans, and opium as well as to cancel debts and redistribute land to the poor. The rebellion was among the deadliest conflicts in history because corrupt Qing generals did not cooperate with one another and plundered local cities to gain wealth, instead of putting down the revolt directly. Civilian casualties were further exacerbated by western mercenaries with modern articles of warfare that were recruited with trade and concession deals to aid the Qing. The disarray of China led to the Second Opium War and ultimately European control over China. |
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Sepoys
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were locally recruited Indian soldiers serving Britain’s East India Company; whose efforts focused on controlling the local population. Many lower class Indians joined as sepoy recruits to gain social advancements. The sepoys would rebel in 1857 over the controversy over greased ammunitions cartridges and the British response to the upset. The Muslim and Hindu members of the sepoy troops suspected the grease was either pig or cow grease, which conflicted with their religious traditions. The rebellion was largely unsuccessful as there was no unity or common purpose for the revolt and the British easily subdues remaining sepoy forces as many dissolved after the initial revolt.
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Tanzimat
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meaning “reorganization”, was a set of reforms enacted in the Ottoman Empire beginning in 1839. The Tanzimat was designed to modernize and westernize the empire as it began to deteriorate in previous decades. The reforms established regional representative assemblies, a secular school system, a more flexible tax system, and a new set of laws molded in part on the Napoleonic Code. Industrialism and national pride would be promoted but the Tanzimat would ultimately fail to gain prosperity for the Turks in large part to their alliance with Germany in WWI. |
