Sport Psychology Iii

Front 1

Broadly considered as “the behavioral process of influencing individuals and groups towards settings goals” (Barrow, 1977, p. 232).

Back 1

Leadership

The leader is the inspiration and director of the action. He or she is the person in the group that possesses the combination of personality and skills that makes others want to follow his or her direction.

Front 2

How do leaders and managers differ

Back 2

A manager is someone concerned with planning , organizing, scheduling, budgeting, staffing, and recruiting. (logistics)
Leaders often have some of the same functions, but also act in other ways.
Providing vision that helps determine the direction that the organization or team pursues. (influence behavior)
Provide resources and support to get this job done.
“too many teams are overmanaged and underled” (Martens, 1987, p. 33).

Front 3

1st of two methods of choosing a leader

Back 3

Prescribed:
Appointed by someone in authority.
Examples: health clubs, owners choose the managers, and in schools, the principal chooses the teachers.
For our focus, the athletic director commonly selects coaches.

Common method - higher power tells you what to do.
An Athletic Director has experience (hopefully), but not in all sports, may not have input

Front 4

2nd of two methods in choosing a leader

Back 4

Emergent:
Simply emerge from the group and take charge.
Examples: captains and coaches of intramural or club teams.
Found to be more effective due to the respect and support of the team or group members.
Have special skills, lots of experience, high ability in the specific sport or exercise.

Front 5

Functions of leaders

Back 5

To ensure that the demands of the organization are satisfied in that the group meets its goals and objectives.

To ensure that the needs of the group members are satisfied.

Front 6

Trait approach:
1920 study that tried to determine what characteristics or personality traits were common to great leaders.

Considered LEADERSHIP TRAITS to be

Back 6

relatively stable personality dispositions.
Intelligence, assertiveness, independence, and self-confidence.
Argues that successful leaders have certain personality characteristics that make it likely they will be leaders no matter what situation they are in. (people with those characteristics should be leaders)

Front 7

What happened to the trait theory about leaders being born not made?

Back 7

Lost favor when only a couple of consistent personality traits were found.
Therefore, they found that certain traits might be helpful for a leader to have, but are certainly not essential for successful leadership.
Individuals are unique.
Approach didn't take environment into account.

Front 8

Which approach says Leaders are made

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Behavioral
Focused on discovering universal behaviors of effective leaders
Argued that anyone could become a leader by simply learning the behaviors of other effective leaders.
Leaders made, not born.

Front 9

Interactional approach of leadership

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Trait and Behavioral approaches emphasize personal factors at the expense of considering the interaction between people and their situational constraints.

Much research has been done in the past 20 years in the fields of general and sport psychology on the idea of an interactional approach to leadership. Three important points have come out of this research:

1. No one set of characteristics ensures successful leadership. Some personality traits are appropriate to leadership roles, but leaders havne't been predicted by personality traits
2. Effective leadership styles fit the situation
3.Leaders are flexible. Relationship-oriented leaders and task-oriented leaders can adapt for a situation (Fiedler)

Front 10

Can leaders be predicted based on personality traits?

Back 10

No one set of characteristics ensures successful leadership. Investigators believe that great leaders have had in common personality traits appropriate to the leadership roles and distinct from non-leadership roles.

However, leaders have not been predicted solely by their personality traits.

Front 11

Often times, a coach will be successful at one level or location but then fail at another. What does this mean about changing leadership style?

Back 11

Effective leadership styles or behaviors fit the specific situation.

This doesn’t mean they changed their style, but rather their style didn’t fit the situation.

Front 12

Examples of leadership styles:

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1. Relationship-Oriented Leaders

2. Task-oriented leaders

Front 13

What was the third finding of the research on leadership styles

Back 13

The third finding of the research was that leadership styles can be changed.

Front 14

Fiedler (1967) contingency model of leadership states that the effectiveness of leadership depends equally on

Back 14

the leader’s style of interacting with the group and the favorableness of the situation
For example, an inner-city PE teacher that lacks money, facilities, and community support might have to be more task-oriented. On the other hand, a middle school football coach in a well-funded program may have the luxury of being more relationship-oriented.

If a coach feels more comfortable with one type of leadership, they should seek out situations in which their style would be more effective.

Front 15

The Multidimensional Model of Sport Leadership consists of

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antecedents and leader behavior and consequences (from those interactions)

Front 16

These 3 antecedents lead to the types of behavior in the multidimensional model of sport leadership

Back 16

These 3 lead to the types of behavior

1) The Situation
2) The Leader
3) The Members

Front 17

in the multidimensional model of sport leadership, The athletes satisfaction and performance depend on these 3 types of leader behavior

Back 17

The athletes satisfaction and performance depend on these 3 types of leader behavior

1) The REQUIRED behavior
2) The PREFERRED behavior
3) The ACTUAL behavior

Front 18

Required leader behavior

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indicated by the organizational system - how the leader is supposed to act

Front 19

Actual leader behavior

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The behavior the leader actually exhibits
Affected directly by leader characteristics

Front 20

Preferred leader behavior

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Preferences for how a specific leader should act
Influenced by a (group) member's age, experience, personality, and gender

Front 21

Multidimensional Model of Sport Leadership
Positive outcomes are more likely to occur when...

Back 21

This is more likely when the three aspects of leader behavior agree
If the leader behaves appropriately and the behavior matches the preferences of the group members, than the group will feel satisfied

Front 22

Multidimensional Model of Sport Leadership
negative results

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This is more likely when the three aspects of leader behavior disagree
If the actual and preferred behaviors are different than the prescribed behaviors, then optimal satisfaction is predicted - Not optimal performance

Front 23

Leadership styles

Back 23

Autocratic Style
Coach solves problem alone with information they have.
Autocratic – Consultative
Necessary info from relevant players then comes to a decision.
Consultative – Individual
Consults players individually and makes decision – Coach may not use input.
Consultative – Group
Consults players as a group and makes decision – may not use group input.
Group Style
Shares problem with players who make decision – no influence from the coach

Front 24

consequences of leadership

Back 24

Satisfaction

When coaches report having developed the same decision style that their athletes prefer, coaching effectiveness will be rated highly. Similarity, athletes’ satisfaction will clearly be affected when they do not get the coaching style they prefer.

Cohesion

Various studies have shown that coaches perceived as high in training and instruction, positive feedback behaviors, and democratic, social support and also low in autocratic behavior had teams that were more cohesive.

Front 25

more consequences of leadership

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Performance

Studies show that losing teams need more social support from leaders to sustain motivation.

Intrinsic Motivation

Vallerand & Losier (1999) have shown that coaches exhibiting a more autocratic (controlling) style had athletes with lower levels of intrinsic motivation and perceived competence than did coaches who exhibited a more democratic leadership style.

Front 26

Vallerand & Losier (1999) have shown that coaches exhibiting a more autocratic (controlling) style had athletes with lower levels of

Back 26

intrinsic motivation and perceived competence than did coaches who exhibited a more democratic leadership style.

Front 27

Aggression is a behavior
Involves

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harm or injury (Physical or psychological)
Directed toward a living organism - outwardly displayed
Involves intent - planned

Front 28

Hostile or reactive aggression
Primary goal is

Back 28

to inflict injury or psychological harm

Front 29

Instrumental aggression

Example:

Back 29

Occurring in the quest of some non-aggressive goal

boxing, punching is a tool for the process/purpose, goal of sport is to win, not harm

Front 30

Diverts focus from task to intent to harm

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aggression in sport
Be clear w/ young people about what is expected/desired

Front 31

Assertive Play

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Playing within the rules
High intensity and emotion
No intention to do harm

Probably don't actually want aggressive behavior
Breaking rules/people causes trouble
Too much arousal leads to decreased coordination

Front 32

Theories of aggression

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Instinct theory
Frustration - aggression hypothesis
Social learning theory
Revised frustration - aggression theory
General model of aggression

Front 33

Theories of aggression
Instinct theory

Back 33

Individuals have an instinct to be aggressive, which builds up until it must be expressed (directly or via catharsis)
Everyone is going to display it.
Sport is an acceptable outlet for release
Generally no support for theory

Front 34

Theories of aggression
Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Back 34

Aggression is the direct result of a frustration that occurs because of goal blockage or failure.
Generally no support
Does frustration always lead to aggression? no, can channel into other outlets

Front 35

Theories of aggression
Social Learning Theory

Back 35

Aggression is learned through observing others (modeling - replicate behaviors, sometimes unconsiously) and then having similar behavior reinforced. (good and bad can be reinforced - media focus on fights)
Reinforcement
Elite athletes - the pros do it
Media - glammorization
Types of sports
Model has support

Front 36

Theories of aggression
Revised Frustration - Aggression Theory

Back 36

Combines elements of frustration–aggression theory with social learning theory.
Frustration does not always lead to aggression
It increases the likelihood of aggression by increasing arousal, anger, and other thoughts, feelings, and emotions.
Increased arousal and anger result in aggression only when socially learned cues signal the appropriateness of aggression in the particular situation. (coach signaled appropriateness of brawling to hockey kids by opening the door)
Support for model

Front 37

Theories of aggression
General Aggression Model

Back 37

Aggression occurs as a result of a complex process mediated by one’s thoughts, feelings, and emotions. Resulting from the interaction of numerous personal and situation factors.
Support for this model

Front 38

Theories of aggression
General Aggression Model

Inputs

Routes

Outcomes

Back 38

Inputs:
Person factors (traits goals and beliefs) Ego-oriented more likely to aggress - social comparison vs. getting stuff done.
Situation (frustrating conditions, incentives, pain, provocation, and aggressive cues in environment)


Routes:
Internal state- Conditions, Affect, Mood (e.g. hostile thoughts, arousal, mood)

appraisal and decision process leads to...
Outcomes
Thoughtful aggressive action
or
Impulsive aggressive action

Front 39

Spectators aggression is associated with

Back 39

Small-scale, on the field aggressive acts - more in stands when seen on field
Aroused conditions - intensity/closeness of the game, perceived importance, rivalry
Alcohol use
Younger, disadvantaged male spectators
Fan enjoyment (in some cases) - tradition

Front 40

Game reasoning and aggression:
Many athletes view aggression as inappropriate in general but appropriate in the sport environment.
This is called .

Back 40

bracketed morality

Front 41

Aggression in young athletes has been
Predicted by

Back 41

perceptions of teammates’ aggressive behavior in the same situation and the young athletes’ willingness to injure others at their coach’s request
Team norms also contribute to the oral atmosphere that influences aggression in athletes

Front 42

Sport-specific aggression determinants that lead to aggression

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Someone has committed aggression against them
They are highly ego oriented and have low moral development
They see it as part of their role (e.g. hockey enforcer)
Feel group pressures to be aggressive

Front 43

Recognize when aggression is most likely to occur
When people are

Back 43

frustrated and aroused, because they are
Losing
Perceive unfair officiating
Are embarrassed
In physical pain
Playing below their capabilities

Front 44

Losing by a large margin, ___, & __ are especially important situations related to aggression.

Back 44

losing to an opponent one is outplaying, and playing poorly

Front 45

Implications for practice - managing aggression

Back 45

Understand when aggression is most likely to occur
Control aggression via stress or emotion management
Keep winning in perspective
Distinguish between aggression & assertive or intense play
Teach nonviolent conflict resolution skills
Teach appropriate behavior

Front 46

methods to Control Spectator Aggression

Back 46

Develop alcohol control policies
Penalize aggressive acts immediately
Convey non-tolerance toward aggression in media

Front 47

The exchange of task or socially relevant information among group members

Back 47

communication

Front 48

Even though the same process occurs in all communication, the purpose can be different.
Examples

Back 48

Persuading - 1 side vs. other, like storming phase, leader uses

Evaluating - feedback on routine, against criteria

Informing - provide info
Motivating.
Mediating - facilitate

Front 49

2 main types of communication:

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1. Interpersonal - between people

2. Intrapersonal - self-talk, internal or verbalized

Front 50

Intrapersonal communication

Back 50

Communication we have with ourselves - our inner dialogue
These thoughts usually help shape and predict how we act and perform
Can also affect motivation

Front 51

Involves at least two people and a meaningful exchange
The sender intends to affect the response of a person or group
May be received by
the people it was
intended for
not intended for
or both

Back 51

interpersonal communication

Front 52

5 steps of communication process

Back 52

1. person decides to send a message to another
2. sender translates (encodes) thoughts into a message
3. message is channeled to the receiver (verbalize, or otherwise)
4. receiver interprets (decodes) the message
5. receiver thinks about the message and responds (internally)
In conversation, the receiver then becomes the sender. It's a very quick process actually.

Front 53

What percentage of communication is body language?

Back 53

55%
38% voice tonality and 7% words

Front 54

Right time & place to deliver communication is key
when?

Back 54

Soon enough that it's relevant, but don't allow to detract from performance (not while someone's in the midst of the game)
Maybe allow some time after failure before criticism

Front 55

often more accurate indicators of how a person feels.

Back 55

Nonverbal messages are harder to hide and consciously control, so they are

Front 56

Folding your arms across your chest conveys
Locking your hands behind your head suggests

Back 56

you are not open to others
superiority

Front 57

This refers to the personal space between you and others
An aspect of proxemicsstudy of how people communicate by the way they use space
Many coaches stand next to starting players, suggesting

Back 57

favoritism

Front 58

Your face is the most expressive part of your body
Eye contact is very importantgood eye contact usually means you’re

Back 58

engaged and paying attention, while trying to avoid eye contact suggests you’re uncomfortable or embarrassed
Smiles can invite
verbal communication
Socially learned cues

Front 59

The sound of a voice can powerfully reinforce or undercut verbal communication
The voice betrays people’s true feelings, moods, and attitudes
“It’s not what you say but how you say it.”

Capel 1997 refers to:

Back 59

Pitch (high or low)
Tempo (speed)
Pause
Stress (enunciation)
Volume (soft or loud)

proximetry, emotion
speed up when less confident, pause is important

Front 60

improving communication

Back 60

Convey rationales
Express empathy, not sympathy
Use comfortable communication style
Use positive approach
Always acknowledge greeting of others
Be consistent in administering discipline

Front 61

Active listening involves

Back 61

attending to main and supporting ideas, acknowledging, and responding, giving appropriate feedback, and paying attention to the speakers total communication
Hearing is simply receiving sounds, whereas listening is an active process
Nonverbal communication
direct eye contact
Paraphrasing the speaker
What I hear your saying is…
Let me see if I’ve got this right. You said…
Asking specific questions to the speaker
Avoid using the interrogative “Why?”
Seems Judgmental

Front 62

Sender Failure

From what types of messages

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Ambiguous Messages
A lack of specific information
Inconsistent Messages
Hearing one thing today and the opposite tomorrow
Mismatch of verbal and nonverbal channels

Front 63

Supportive listening

Back 63

you're "with" the speaker and value his/her message. Use supportive behaviors - describe the other's behavior instead of evaluating/attacking, empathetic, remain open to change, use confirming behaviors (repeat), use both verbal and nonverbal listening behaviors (stand close enough, make eye contact, facial expression, open posture)

Front 64

Aware listening

Back 64

People react differently
1. be flexible
2. be alert for barriers (noise) and breakdowns (misinterpreted or misdirected)

Front 65

Receiver Failures

Back 65

Emotions can cause a misinterpretation of messages when senders and receivers do not understand each others point of view.
Apart from misinterpreting the massage, receivers cause problems when they fail to listen

Front 66

confrontation

Back 66

A face-to-face discussion among people in conflict.
When used properly can help both parties understand the issues more clearly without feeling undue stress, guilt, or inadequacy.

Front 67

All needs are legitimate and important and must be attended to.
There are enough resources to meet all needs.
Process is as important as content because it provides direction and focus.
Improving situations is different from solving problems.
Everyone is right from his or her own perspective.
Solutions and resolutions are temporary states of balance and not absolute or timeless.

Back 67

important when approaching confrontation

Front 68

When approaching confrontation do

Back 68

Convey that you value your relationship with the person.
Go slowly and think about what you want to communicate.
Try to understand the other person’s position.
Listen carefully to what the other person is trying to communicate.

Front 69

When approaching confrontation don't

Back 69

Don’t communicate the solution.
Don’t stop communicating.
Don’t use “put-downs.”
Don’t rely on nonverbal hints to communicate your thoughts.

Front 70

Sandwich approach to constructive criticism

Back 70

A positive statement
Future-orientated instruction
A compliment.

Front 71

A social process that occurs when rewards are given to people on the basis of how their performances compare with the performances of others doing the same task or participating on the same event.

Back 71

competition

Front 72

A social process through which performance is evaluated and rewarded in terms of the collective achievements of a group of people working together to reach a particular goals.

Back 72

cooperation

Front 73

cooperation examples

Back 73

Team Sports – Soccer, Football, Hockey, Basketball

Front 74

Rainer Martens (1975b)
Competition Is not a single event
4 distinct stages (separate but linked)

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Objective Competitive Situation
Subjective Competitive Situation
Response
Consequences

Front 75

Contains a standard for comparison
At least one other person
In order to be considered competition there must be an external evaluator

Back 75

objective competitive situation

delimitation of study - need some boundaries/structure (or anything could be competitive)

Front 76

co-active vs. interactive

Back 76

Co-active - individual performance independent but summed

Interactive: direct influence on teammates, need cooperation

Front 77

How the person appraises the objective situation
Related to perceived ability, motivation, importance

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subjective competitive situation

individual appraisal
self-efficacy, how much you care, need to achieve vs. fear of failure
demonstrate not dominate (process, not outcome)

Front 78

COMPETITION IS NEITHER INHERENTLY

Back 78

GOOD OR BAD, IT IS SIMPLY A PROCESS

Front 79

Individuals background becomes very important
a Competitive person

Back 79

makes everything = Competition
that can alienate non-competitive people

Front 80

Response phase of Martens' competition process

Back 80

Having appraised the situation decide to approach it or avoid it

Decide not to compete = model ends

Compete = Behavioral (level of challenge), Physiological (arousal), & Psychological (motivation, confidence) responses

Front 81

Last phase of Martens' competition process

Back 81

Consequences

Comparing athlete’s response to standard of comparison
Generally seen as positive or negative
Perception of outcome is far more important than the objective outcome

Feelings of success and failure feed back into process for subsequent events

Front 82

Tripplett’s Cyclist - +VE
Deutsch’s Puzzle - -VE
Aggression - +VE & -VE

Back 82

Studies on competition. Social facilitation
Individual vs. group work (cooperative and communicating to do more puzzles)

Front 83

Component structures of games

Competitive Means-Competitive Ends


Cooperative Means-Competitive Ends


Individual Means-Individual Ends


Cooperative Means-Individual Ends

Cooperative Means-Cooperative Ends

Back 83

Competitive Means-Competitive Ends
Beat someone or everyone from outset to end (100m sprint)

Cooperative Means-Competitive Ends
Cooperation within a group to beat an outside opponent
(team sports)

Individual Means-Individual Ends
Individual goal without competition or cooperation
(go for a jog)
Cooperative Means-Individual Ends
Cooperation to meet individual goals
(trading feedback on technique, work together to improve personally)
Cooperative Means-Cooperative Ends
Cooperation from the outset to the end
(shared games, Barcelona team juggling in soccer)

Front 84

Benefits of cooperative games

Back 84

Cooperative games usually require no equipment or money
Anyone can play
Rules can be altered to fit specific restraints
Players work together in a unit
Players can learn from mistakes
These activities can build competition and cooperation, but cooperation should not replace competition.

***Coaching Point: Structure your game!