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83 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
logical arrangement of evidence in a speech
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logos
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speaker's credibility
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ethos
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emotional appeals made by a speaker
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pathos
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mental leaps we make when we recognize that a speaker's evidence supports his or her claims
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inferences
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set of statements that allows you to develop your evidence to establish the validity of your claim
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argument
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process of reasoning that uses specific instances, or examples, to make a claim about a general conclusion
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inductive reasoning
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exceptions to a rule, unique instances that do not represent the norm
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anomalies
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error in reasoning in which a speaker reaches a conclusion without enough evidence to support it
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hasty generalization
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process of reasoning that uses a familiar and commonly accepted claim to establish the trusth of a very specific claim
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deductive reasoning
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claim in an argument that states a familiar, commonly accepted belief (also called the general principle)
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major premise
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claim in an argument that states a specific instance linked to the major premise
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minor premise
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logical outcome of an argument that results form the combination of the major and minor premises
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conclusion
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process of reasoning that supports a claim by establishing a cause-and-effect (or "if-then")relationship
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causal reasoning
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error in reasoning in which a speaker assumes that one event caused another simply because the first event happened before the second
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false cause
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a process of reasoning by way of comparison and similarity that implies that because two things resemble each other in one respect, they also share similiarities in another respect
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analogical reasoning
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something that represents something else
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sign
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process of reasoning that assumes something exists or will happen based on something else that exists or has happened
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reasoning by sign
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What are the four questions of Toulmin's model?
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1. Claim: What do you think or want to propose?
2. Grounds: Why do you think or want to propose it? 3. Warrant: How do you know the grounds support the claim? 4. Backing: How do you know the warrant supports the grounds? |
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audience's perception of a speaker's competence and character
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credibility
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audience's view of a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge or a subject
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competence
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audience's view of a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience
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character
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system of verbal or gestural symbols a community uses to communicate
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language
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word or phrase spoken by a speaker
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symbol
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object, concept, or event a symbol represents
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referent
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memory and past experiences that audience members have with an object, concept, or event
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thought, or reference
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language that refers to a tangible object- a person, place, or thing
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concrete language
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language that refers to ideas or concepts but not to specific objects
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abstract language
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fixed, distinctive expression whose meaning is not indicated by its individual words
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idiom
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speaking style that reflects the spoken rather than the written word
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oral style
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figure of speech that makes an explicit comparison of two things using the word 'like' or 'as'
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simile
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figure of speech that makes a comparison between two things by describing one thing as being something else
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metaphor
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metaphor that makes illogical comparisons between two or more things
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mixed metaphor
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figure of speech that attributes human characteristics to animals, objects, or concepts
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personification
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arrangement of words into patterns so the sounds of the words together enhance the meaning of a phrase
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rhythm
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arrangement of related words so they are balanced or of related sentences so they have identical structures
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parallelism
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repeating keywords or phrases at the beginnings or endings of sentences or clauses to create rhythm
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repetition
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repetition of initial sounds of two or more words in a sentence or phrase
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alliteration
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verbal device that makes information easier to remember
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mnemonic device
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placement of words and phrases in contrast or opposition to one another
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antithesis
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speech whose message attempts to change or reinforce an audience's thoughts, feelings, or actions
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persuasive speech
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question that addresses whether something is verifiably true or not
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question of fact
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question that addresses the merit of morality of an object, action, or belief
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question of value
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question that addresses the best course of action or solution to a problem
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question of policy
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encourage an audience to engage in a specific behavior or take a specific action
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gain immediate action
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explicitly request that an audience engage in some clearly stated behavior
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call to action
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ask an audience to adopt a new position without also asking them to act in support of that position
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gain passive agreement
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organizational pattern that focuses on persuading an audience that a specific problem exists and can be solved or minimized by a specific solution
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problem-solution organization
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organizational pattern that focuses on identifying a specific problem, the causes of that problem and a solution to the problem
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problem-cause-solution organization
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organizational pattern that illustrates the advantages of one solution over others
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comparative advantages organization
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step-by-step process used to persuade audiences by gaining attention, demonstrating a need, satisfying that need, visualizing beneficial results, and calling for action
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Monroe's motivated sequence
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persuasive strategy that addresses both sides of an issue, refuting one side to prove the other is better
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two-sided message
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arguments against the speaker's own position
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counterarguments
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threat of something undesirable happening if change does not occur
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fear appeal
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credibility a speaker has before giving a speech
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initial credibility
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credibility a speaker develops during a speech
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derived credibility
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credibility a speaker has at the end of a speech
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terminal credibility
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similarities, shared interests, and mutual perspectives a speaker has with an audience
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common ground
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interrelated set of beliefs, attitudes, values, and feelings held by members of a particular society or culture
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mythos
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argument that seems valid but is flawed because of unsound evidence or reasoning
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fallacy
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argument in which a speaker attacks a person rather than that person's arguments
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ad hominem fallacy
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argument that something is correct or good because everyone else agrees with it or is doing it
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bandwagon fallacy
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argument in which a speaker claims our options are "either A or B," when actually more than two options exist. Sometimes called a false dilemma.
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either-or fallacy
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argument that introduces irrelevant information to distract an audience from the real issue
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red herring fallacy
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argument in which a speaker claims that taking a first step in one direction will lead to inevitable and undesirable further steps
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slippery slope fallacy
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What are guidelines for inductive reasoning?
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1. Have enough examples to support your claim
2. Make sure your generalizations are accurate 3. Use statistics and testimony to support your arguments |
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What should you do if your audience does not immediately accept your general principle?
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you will need to establish its validity
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What are guidelines for causal reasoning?
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1. Be careful not to claim a causal relationship if it can't be proved
2. Do not assume mistakenly there is only one cause for an event 3. Try to identify the strength or weakness of the relationship you are establishing |
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interaction, connection, and exchange of ideas and opinions with others
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dialogue
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acknowledging your audience by considering and listening to the unique, diverse, and common perspectives of its members before, during, and after your speech
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audience centered
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complex and varied group of people the speaker addresses
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audience
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significant positions occupied by a person within society that affect that person's identity in almost all social situations
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master statuses
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perspective from which a person views and evaluates society
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standpoint
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general positive or negative feeling a person has about something
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attitude
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person's idea of what is real or true or not
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belief
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person's idea of what is good, worthy, or important
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value
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belief that our own cultural perspectives, norms, and ways of organizing society are superior to others
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ethnocentrism
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analysis that identifies the particular population traits of an audience
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demographic audience analysis
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question that allows the respondent to answer in an unrestricted way
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open-ended question
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question that requires the respondent to choose an answer from two or more alternatives
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closed-ended question
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broad generalization about an entire group based on limited knowledge or exposure to only certain members of that group
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stereotype
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trying to see and understand the world as another person does
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empathy
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time and place in which a pseaker will speak
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speaking environment
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What are the 5 steps to Monroe's motivated sequence?
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1. Attention
2. Need 3. Satisfaction 4. Visualization 5. Action |