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125 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
aggregate
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individuals who temporarily share the same physical space but do not see themselves as belonging together.
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agricultural revolution
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the second social revolution, based on the invention of the plow, which led to agricultural societies.
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agricultural society
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a society based on large-scale agricultural.
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authoritarian leader
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an individual who leads by giving orders
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biotech society
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a society whose economy increasingly centers on the application of genetics to produce medicine, food, and materials.
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category
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people who have similar characteristics
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clique
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a cluster of people within a larger group who choose to interact with one another
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coalition
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the alignment of some members of a group against others
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democratic leader
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an individual who leads by trying to reach a consensus
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domestication revolution
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the first social revolution, based on the domestication of plants and animals, which led to pastoral and horticultural societies
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dyad
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the smallest possible group, consisting of two persons
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electronic community
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individuals who regularly interact with one another on the Internet and who think of themselves as belonging together.
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expressive leader
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an individual who increases harmony and minimizes conflict in a group; also known as a socioemotional leader
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group
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people who have something in common and who believe that what they have in common is significant; also called a social group.
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group dynamics
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the ways in which individuals affect groups and the ways in which groups affect individuals
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groupthink
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a narrowing of though by a group of people, leading to the perception that there is only one correct answer, in which to even suggest alternatives becomes a sign of disloyalty
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horticultural society
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a society based on cultivating plants by the use of hand tools
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hunting and gathering society
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a human group that depends on hunting and gathering for its survival
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Industrial Revolution
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the third social revolution, occurring when machines powered by fuels replaced most animal and human power
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industrial society
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a society based on the use of machines powered by fuels
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in-groups
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groups toward which people feel loyalty
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instrumental leader
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an individual who tries to keep the group moving toward its goals; also known as a task-oriented leader
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laissez-faire leader
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an individual who leads by being highly permissive
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leader
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someone who influences other people
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leadership styles
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ways in which people express their leadership
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out-groups
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groups toward which people feel antagonism
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pastoral society
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a society based on the pasturing of animals
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postindustrial (information) society
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a society based on information, services, and high technology,, rather than on raw materials and manufacturing
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primary group
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a group characterized by intimate, long-term, face-to-face association, and cooperation
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reference group
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a group whose standards we refer to as we evaluate ourselves
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secondary group
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compared with a primary group, a larger, relatively temporary, more anonymous, formal, and impersonal group based on some interest or activity
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shaman
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the healing specialist of a tribe who attempts to control the spirits thought to cause a diesease or injury; commonly called a witch doctor
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small group
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a group small enough for everyone to interact directly with all the other members
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social network
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the social ties radiating outward from the self that link people together
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society
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people who share a culture and a territory
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triad
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a group of three people
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alienation
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Marx's term for workers' lack of connection to the product of their labor; caused by their being assigned repetitive tasks on a small part of a product, which leads to a sense of powerlessness and normlessness.
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bureaucracy
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a formal organization with a hierarchy of authority and a clear division of labor; emphasis on impersonality of positions and written rules, communications, and records
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capitalism
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an economic system characterized by the private ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of profit, and market competition
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corporate culture
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the orientations that characterize corporate work settings
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formal organization
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a secondary group designed to achieve explicit objectives
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goal displacement
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an organization replacing old goals with new ones; also known as goal replacement
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humanizing a work setting
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organizing a workplace in such a way that it develops rather than impedes human potential.
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iron law of oligarchy (the)
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Robert Michels's term for the tendency of formal organizations to be dominated by a small, self-perpetuating elite.
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McDonaldization of society (the)
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the process by which ordinary aspects of life are rationalized and efficiency comes to rule them, including such things as food preparation.
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Peter Principle
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a tongue-in-cheek observation that the members of an organization are promoted for their accomplishments until they reach their level of incompetence; there they cease to be promoted, remaining at the level at which they con no longer do good work.
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rationality
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using rules, efficiency, and practical results to determine human affairs.
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rationalization of society (the)
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a widespread acceptance of rationality and social organizations that are built largely around this idea
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traditional society
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a society in which the past is thought to be the best guide for the present; characterized tribal, peasant, and feudal societies.
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voluntary association
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a group made up of people who voluntarily organize on the basis of some mutual interest; also known as voluntary memberships and voluntary organizations
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capital punishment
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death penalty
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control theory
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the idea that two control systems-inner and outer controls-work against our tendencies to deviate
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corporate crime
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crimes committed by executives in order to benefit their corporation
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crime
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the violation of norms written into law
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criminal justice system
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the system of police, courts, and prisons set up to deal with people who are accused of having committed a crime
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cultural goals
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the objectives held out as legitimate or desirable for the members of a society to achieve
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degradation ceremony
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a term coined by Harold Garfinkel to refer to a ritual whose goal is to reshape someone's self by stripping away that individual's self-identity and stamping a new identity in its place
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deviance
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the violation of norms (or rules or expectations)
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differential association
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Edwin Sutherland's term to indicate that people who associate with some groups learn an "excess of definitions" of of deviance, increasing the likelihood that they will become deviant
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genetic predisposition
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inborn tendencies (for example, a tendency to commit deviant acts)
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hate crime
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a crime that is punished more severely because it is motivated by hatred (dislike, hostility, animosity) of someone's race-ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, disability, or national origin.
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illegitimate opportunity structure
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opportunities for crimes that are woven into texture of life
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institutionalized means
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approved ways of reaching cultural goals
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labeling theory
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the view that the labels people are given affect their own and others' perceptions of them, thus channeling their behavior into either deviance or conformity
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medicalization of deviance
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to make deviance a medical matter; a symptom of some underlying illness that needs to be treated by physicians
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negative sanction
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an expression of disapproval for breaking a norm, ranging from a mild, informal reaction such as a frown to a formal reaction such as a prison sentence or an execution.
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personality disorders
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the view that a personality disturbance of some sort causes an individual to violate social norms
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police discretion
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the practice of the police, in the normal course of their duties, to either arrest or ticket someone for an offense or to overlook the matter.
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positive sanction
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a reward or positive reaction for following norms, ranging from a smile to a material award
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recidivism rate
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the proportion of released convicts who are rearrested
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serial murder
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the killing of several victims in three or more separate events
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social control
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a group's formal and informal means of enforcing its norms
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social order
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a group's usual and customary social arrangements, on which its members depend and on which they base their lives
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stigma
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"blemishes" that discredit a person' claim to a "normal" identity
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strain theory
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Robert Merton's term for the strain engendered when a society socializes large numbers of people to desire a cultural goal (such as success) but withholds from some the approved means of reaching that goal; one adaptation to the strain is crime, the choice of an innovative means (one outside the approved system) to attain the cultural goal
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street crime
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crimes such as mugging, rape, and burglary
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techniques of neutralization
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ways of thinking or rationalizing that help people deflect (or neutralize) society's norms
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white-collar crime
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Edwin Sutherland's term for crimes committed by people of respectable and high social status in the course of their occupations; for example, bribery of public officials,securities violations, embezzlement, false advertising, and price fixing
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correspondence principle
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the sociological principle that schools correspond to (or reflect) the social structure of their society
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credential society
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the use of diplomas and degrees to determine who is eligible for jobs, even though the diploma or degree may be irrelevant to the actual work
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cultural transmission of values
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the process of transmitting values from one group to another; often refers to how cultural traits are transmitted across generations and, in education, the ways in which schools transmit a group's culture, especially its core values.
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education
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a formal system of teaching knowledge, values, and skills
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functional illiterate
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a high school graduate who has difficulty with basic reading and math
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gatekeeping
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the process by which education opens and closes doors of opportunity; another term for the social placement function of education
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grade inflation
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higher grades given for the same work; a general rise in student grades without a corresponding increase in learning
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hidden curriculum
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the unwritten goals of schools, such as obedience to authority and conformity to cultural norms
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latent functions
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unintended beneficial consequences of people's actions
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mainstreaming
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helping people to become part of the mainstream of society
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mandatory education laws
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laws that require all children to attend school until a specified age or until they complete a minimum grade in school
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manifest functions
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the intended beneficial consequences of people's actions
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self-fulfilling prophecy
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Robert Merton's term for an originally false assertion that becomes true simply because it was predicted
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social placement
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a function of education-funneling people into a society's various positions
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social promotion
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passing students to the next level even though they have not mastered basic materials
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tracking
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in education, the sorting of students into different educational programs on the basis of perceived abilities
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animism
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the belief that all objects in the world have spirits, some of which are dangerous and must be outwitted
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anti-Semitism
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prejudice, discrimination, and persecution directed against Jews
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born again
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a term describing Christians who have undergone a religious experience so life transforming that they feel they have become new persons.
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charisma
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literally, an extraordinary gift from God; more commonly, an outstanding, "magnetic' personality
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charismatic leader
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literally, someone to whom God has given a gift; in its extended sense, someone who exerts extraordinary appeal to a group of followers
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church
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according to Durkheim, one of the three essential elements of religion-a moral community of believers; also refers to a large, highly organized religious group that has formal, sedate worship services with little emphasis on evangelism, intense religious experience, or personal conversion
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civil religion
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Robert Bellah's term for religion that is such an established feature of a country's life that its history and social institutions become sanctified by being associated with God
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cosmology
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teachings or ideas that provide a unified picture of the world
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cult
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a new religion with few followers, whose teachings and practices put it at odds with the dominant culture and religion
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denomination
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a "brandname" within a major religion, for example, Methodist or Baptist
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ecclesia
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a religious group so integrated into the dominant culture that it is difficult to tell where the one begins and the other leaves off, also called a state religion
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evangelism
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an attempt to win converts
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fundamentalism
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the belief that social change, especially in values, is threatening true religion and that the religion needs to go back to its fundamentals (roots, basic beliefs, and practices)
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functional equivalent
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a substitute that serves the same functions (or meets the same needs)as religion; for example, psychotherapy
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modernization
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the transformation of traditional societies into industrial societies
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monotheism
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the belief that there is only one god
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polytheism
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the belief that there are many gods
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profane
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Durkheim's term for common elements of everyday life
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Protestant ethic
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Weber's term to describe a self-denying, highly moral life accompanied by hard work and frugality
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reincarnation
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in Hinduism and Buddhism, the return of the soul (or self) after death in a different form
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religion
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according to Durkheim, beliefs and practices that separate the profane from the sacred and unite its adherents into a moral community
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religious experience
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a sudden awareness of the supernatural or a feeling of coming in contact with God
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rituals
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ceremonies or repetitive practices; in religion, observances or rites, often intended to evoke a sense of awe of the sacred
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sacred
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Durkheim's term for things set apart or forbidden that inspire fear, awe, reverence, or deep respect
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sect
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a group larger than a cult that still feels substantial hostility from and toward society
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secular
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belonging to the world and its affairs
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secularization of culture
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the process by which a culture becomes less influenced by religion
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secularization of religion
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the replacement of a religion's "other worldly" concerns with concerns about "this world"
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spirit of capitalism
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Weber's term for the desire to accumulate capital-not to spend it, but as an end in itself-and to constantly reinvest it
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state religions
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a government-sponsored religion; also called ecclesia
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depersonalization
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ddealing with people as though they were objects; in the case of medical care, as though patients were merely cases and diseases, not people
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