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63 Cards in this Set
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Marxism and Functionalism - Religion and Social Change (4) |
-Generally dismissed the possibility that religion can cause changes in society. - Both would argue that religion impedes social change. CRITICISM: Nelson (1986) points to a number of instances where religion has undermined stability or promoted change, including the fact Reverend Martin Luther King played a leading role in the campaign for civil rights and that in South Africa, Archbishop Desmond Tutu was a prominent opponent of apartheid. -They believe that religion acts as a conservative force and that it is changes in society that shape religion. -Functionalists have claimed that it acts in this way because it promotes integration and social solidarity. In this way is facilitates the continued existence of society in its present form. CRITICISM: Functionalism seems to ignore the dysfunctional aspects of religion where it has caused divisions e.g Northern Ireland between Catholics and Protestants. -Marx had similar views, although he saw religion as maintaining the status quo in the interests of the ruling class rather than those of society as a whole. CRITICISM: However, it may be argued that religion does not always have legitimate power in order to support the ruling class. |
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Weber - Religion and Social Change (7,3C) |
-In some circumstances religion can lead to social change. -In his most famous book, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1958), he examines the relationship between a certain form of Protestantism (Calvinism) and the development of Western industrial capitalism. -Calvin thought that there was a distinct group of the elect (those chosen to go to heaven) and that they had been chosen by God even before they were born. Those who were not among the elect could never gain a place in heaven. -This produced a psychological problem for Calvinists - They did not know whether they were among the elect and suffered from uncertainty. - They lived an ascetic lifestyle, encouraging abstinence from life pleasures, a simple lifestyle and rigorous self-discipline. It produced individuals who worked hard in their careers and success meant that the individual had not lost grace in God's sight. CRITICISM: Calvinism was strong in some parts of the world where capitalism did not develop until much later, such as Switzerland and Scotland. Marshall (1982) counters this by pointing out that Weber did not claim that Calvinism was the only factor necessary for the development of capitalism. - Weber argued that capitalism is grounded in a set of ideas, ethics and values that he termed 'the spirit of capitalism'. CRITICISM: Kautsky (1953) argues from a Marxist perspective claiming that Protestantism became the ideology capitalists used to legitimate their position. - Religion encouraged the creation of wealth and a frugal approach to to spending. |
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Rise in fundamentalism |
- Taylor (1987) defines fundamentalism as following a distinctive pattern: a group perceives a challenge to an ultimate authority, usually a god, in which they believe. The group decides that the challenge cannot be tolerated. They reaffirm their belief in the authority that is being challenged. They oppose those who have challenged the established beliefs and often use political means to further their cause. - If fundamentalists are successful, they succeed in defending traditional values, but they also change society by reversing innovation that has already taken place. E.g in the 1960s and the 1970s, Iran underwent a process of liberalisation. Attitudes to women changed and there were good relations with the West. In 1979 the Iranian revolution took place, partly inspired by fundamentalism, and these changes were reversed. - In this case, religious beliefs contributed to producing revolutionary change. In the case of Iran, religion did not act as a conservative force in the political sense, but in terms of supporting traditional values it was conservative. ONE MAY COMMENT THAT THE CAPACITY OF RELIGION TO EFFECT SOCIAL CHANGE MAY BE DETERMINED BY CULTURE. |
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Define 'Religion' |
- Religious beliefs of some sort are present in every known human society, but the nature of those beliefs varies considerably.
- Two main approaches have been taken to defining religion: - Substantive definitions - these are concerned with the content of religion. E.g Yinger (1981) defined religion as 'a system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people struggles with the ultimate problems of human life' - Functional definitions - these define religion in terms of the functions it performs for society and for individuals. Durkheim (1961) defined religion in terms of a distinction between the sacred and the profane. Sacred objects produce a sense of awe and respect, whereas profane objects do not. - All definitions emphasise certain aspects of religion and ignore others. - Function definitions tend to be too inclusive, while substantive ones tend to be too exclusive. |
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Durkheim (1912) Religion (8, 4C) Functionalism |
- In worshipping God, people are in fact worshipping society. - Society is more important and powerful than the individual, just as God is. - Religion reinforces the shared values and moral beliefs - what Durkheim called the 'collective conscience' - that holds society together. DUE TO RELIGIOUS PLURALISM IT MAY BE ARGUED THAT THERE IS A DIVIDE BETWEEN GROUPS - By defining these shared values as sacred, religion endows them with greater power. - In worshipping society, people are recognising the importance of the social group and their dependence on it. HAMILTON (1995) DURKHEIM OVERSTATES THE DEGREE TO WHICH COMMON VALUES INFLUENCE INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR - This therefore means that religion strengthens the unity of the group: promotes social solidarity OTHER SOCIAL AGENCIES MAY BE ABLE TO REPLACE RELIGION AS A FORM OF SOCIAL SOLIDARITY. - Through collective worship, members of society express, communicate and understand the moral bonds which unite them. E.g through singing or chanting. IGNORES CONFLICT WITHIN RELIGION E.G ISREAL AND PALESTINE. DURKHEIM ONLY STUDIED A SMALL NUMBER OF ABORIGINAL TRIBES. MISLEADING TO GENERALISE FROM SMALL SAMPLE. |
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MALINOWSKI (1954) (11, 5C) Functionalism |
- Like Durkheim, he uses data from small-scale, non-literate societies to support his ideas. NOT REPRESENTATIVE - Focuses on the role of religion in dealing with situations of emotional stress the threaten social solidarity. - Identifies two sorts of events that may create this kind of stress 1. Anxiety and tension tend to disrupt social life. _Situations that produce these emotions including life crises e.g birth, death, marriage. _Malinowski notes that in all societies these life crises are surrounded by religious ritual. _E.g at a funeral ceremony, the social group unites to support bereaved CRITICISED FOR EXAGGERATING THE IMPORTANCE OF RELIGIOUS RITUAL IN HELPING PEOPLE TO COPE WITH SITUATIONS OF STRESS AND UNCERTAINTY. _The expression of social solidarity reintegrates society. IGNORES RELIGIOUS PLURALISM WHICH MAY DIVIDE SOCIETY. ALSO FAILS TO RECOGNISE GROUPS THAT RELIGIONS OPPRESS, E.G WOMEN AND HOMOSEXUALS. 2. Actions that cannot be fully controlled or predicted also produce tension and anxiety. _From his observation in the Trobiand Islands, he noted that such events were surrounded by ritual. STUDY CONDUCTED ON ANCIENT CIVILISATION - NOT RELEVANT _Rituals reduce anxiety by providing confidence and a feeling of control. PEOPLE MAY TURN TO RELIGION FOR SHORT TERM AND THEN GIVE UP |
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Parsons (1965) 5, 2C Functionalism |
- Religious beliefs provide guidelines for human action and standards against which people's conduct can be evaluated. - E.g The Ten Commandments provide the basis for social norms. - Like Malinowski, sees religion as dealing with problems that disrupt social life IGNORES DYSFUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF SOCIETY - Main function of religion = make sense of all experiences, no matter how meaningless or contradictory they appear. - Religion provides a range of answers to questions about suffering, evil etc. YOU MAY QUESTION WHETHER IT REALLY DOES ANSWER EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS? AS IT CONFLICTS WITH SCIENCE AND MANY QUESTIONS ARE UNANSWERED |
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Neo - Functionalist Bellah Religion |
- Interested in how religion unifies society, especially a multi-faith society like America - What unites American society is an overarching civil religion - a belief system that attracts sacred qualities to society itself. MAY BE RELEVANT TO AMERICA BUT NOT ALL SOCIETIES. I.E INCREASING SECULARISATION IN THE UK - In the American case, civil religion is a faith in Americanism or the 'American way of life' THERE WAS NO RELIGIOUS CONTENT INVOLVED IN THE 9/11 CEREMONY, SOCIETY UNITED THROUGH A HARD TIME AND RELIGION HAD NO PLACE - *** CRITICISM According to Herberg, the main evidence for secularisation in the USA is to be found in the decline of the religiosity of churches and denominations themselves. -These organisations have compromised their religious beliefs to fit in the wider society - America increasing reflect on the 'American way of life' rather than the word of God**** - Bellah argues that civil religion integrates society in a way that individual religions cannot - It is expressed in various rituals, symbols and beliefs e/g singing national anthem or the pledge of allegiance to the flag - This is not specifically a Catholic, protestant or Jewish God, but rather an 'American God'. It sacralises the American way of life and brings together Americans from many different ethnic and religious backgrounds ALTHOUGH THIS OVERCOMES OTHER LIMITATIONS OF FUNCTIONALISM AS IT RECOGNISES HOW RELIGIOUSLY PLURAL SOCIETY IS AND SO THEY MAY HAVE DIFFERENT VALUES, WE MAY QUESTION IS THIS REALLY RELIGION? IN ADDITION TO THIS, IT MAY BE HIGHLIGHTED THAT THE CURRENT DEGREE OF RACISM AND DIVISION IN AMERICA ATM ESPECIALLY DUE TO 'RACIST' POLICE FORCE SEEMS TO SHOW THERE IS NO SOCIAL SOLIDARITY THERE |
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MARXISM |
- For Marx, religion is an illusion which eases the pain produced by exploitation and oppression. MADURO STATED THAT RELIGION HAS RELATIVE AUTONOMY FROM THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM. - It is a series of myths that justify and legitimate the domination of the ruling class. ENGELS FOUND THAT CHRISTIANITY CAN BE USED TO HELP THE LOWER CLASSES - It forms the basis of much ruling- class ideology - Marx described religion as the 'opium of the people'. Like a drug, it dulls pain and creates a dream world rather than bringing true happiness. SEES SOCIETY AS BASED ON THE CLASS SYSTEM, THERE ARE OTHER FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION WHICH INCLUDE ANSWERING EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS. - Religion for Marx: - promise a paradise after life, making life bearable by giving them something to look forward to - Makes a virtue out of the suffering produced by oppression. Those who suffer from poverty with dignity and humility will be rewarded in the afterlife - makes it more tolerable IGNORES POSITIVE FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION, E.G SPIRITUAL STRENGTH FOR ALL. FEEL CONNECTED TO FAMILY MEMBERS WHO HAVE DIED ETC. - Supernatural solutions to problems in earthly life, making the present more acceptable - Justifies the social order and a person's position within it - social arrangements appear inevitable and those at the bottom can accept it. EVIDENCE: THE CASTE SYSTEM IN TRADITIONAL INDIA WAS JUSTIFIED BY HINDU RELIGIOUS BELIEFS, WHILST IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE, KINGS AND QUEENS RULED BY 'DIVINE RIGHT' |
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RELIGION AND SOCIAL CONTROL MARXISM |
- Not only does religion simply numb the effects of oppression, it also acts as a mechanism of social control, keeping people in their place. - By making unsatisfactory lives bearable, it discourages people from attempting to change their position - By offering an illusion of hope in a hopeless situation, it prevents thoughts of overthrowing the system WHY HAVEN'T THOSE WHO ARE NOT RELIGIOUS AND LIVE IN POVERTY ATTEMPTING TO OVERTHROW THE CLASS SYSTEM? - By providing justifications for society, religion distorts reality and helps to produce false class consciousness. PRESENTS THE SUBJECT CLASS AS NAIVE AND PASSIVE - Ruling classes also adopt religious beliefs to justify their dominance - Marx believed that religion was a form of alienation - creates an imaginary alien being which controls them. However, religion would die out under communism because there would be no exploitation and therefore no need for religion. TODAY IT SEEMS THAT THE UK IS BECOMES SECULAR, HOWEVER, POVERTY STILL EXISTS. COMMUNIST SOCIETIES ESTABLISHED IN THE 20TH CENTURY DID NOT END EQUALITY OR EXPLOITATION AND TENDED TO BE UNPOPULAR AND RESTRICTED INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM. BY THE EARLY 1990S MOST COMMUNIST REGIMES COLLAPSED. |
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NEO-MARXISM (5,1C) |
- Maduro: Religion is not always a conservative force. - Religion one of the few things that can stimulate revolution. - He highlights the case of liberation theology in Latin America from the end of the 1960s. - Catholic priests criticised ruling groups and helped to organise resistance. ALTHOUGH IT HELPED BRING DEMOCRACY, IT DID NOT THREATEN CAPITALISM OR HELP TO RE-DISTRIBUTE WEALTH TO THE POOR - Interpretations of religion can show it is critical of rich and powerful. |
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Feminism |
- Feminist theories are that religion can be an instrument of domination and oppression and see that religion is a product of patriarchy. |
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Religion and patriarchy (5, 3) |
- De Beauvoir (1949) sees religion as an instrument of male domination. A CONTRASTING VIEW IS HELD BY MARXISTS WHO SEE RELIGION AS AN INSTRUMENT OF CLASS OPPRESSION RATHER THAN AN INSTRUMENT OF PATRIARCHY. - Men usually control religious organisations and claim that their authority comes from God, e.g kings used to rule by 'Divine Right' - Religion gives women a false belief that their suffering will be rewarded in heaven. Deceives women into thinking they are equal to men, whilst in reality they are the disadvantaged 'second sex'. IGNORES OTHER POSITIVE FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION, E.G PROMOTING SOCIAL SOLIDARITY - Some religions portray women are being closed to God but only if they are passive and do not question male authority. - Religion therefore gives women a form of false consciousness which keeps them in their place. EL SAADAWI (1980) ACCEPTS THAT WOMEN ARE EXPLOITED THROUGH RELIGION BUT CLAIMS THAT IT IS NOT RELIGION ITSELF WHICH IS TO BLAME. THE REAL PROBLEM IS THE MANIPULATION AND MISINTERPRETATION OF RELIGIOUS TEACHINGS BY MEN FOR THEIR OWN BENEFIT. |
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Women's position in religion (7, 2) |
- Armstrong (1993) points out that women occupy a marginal position in most major religions. Although they have made gains in many areas of life, their gains in most religions have been very limited. - Women continue to be excluded from key roles in many religions. This is despite the fact that women often participate more than men in organised religion. IGNORES PROGRESS THAT CAN BE MADE, FOR EXAMPLE C of E NOW HAS FEMALE PRIEST AND BISHOPS - Holm (1994) argues that in many religions men dominate the powerful positions of the public sphere, while women do the 'behind the scenes' work in the private sphere. - E.g In Orthodox Judaism only men take part in public ceremonies - Women still cannot be priests in Roman Catholic religion - Holm (1994) highlights that women's second-class status is often related to female biology and sexuality. E.g Islamic women cannot touch the Qu'ran when menstruating - Armstrong (1993) argues that the lower status of women is associated with the development of monotheism - the triumph of religions that believe in a single, male God, such as Christianity and Islam. IT MAY BE ARGUED THAT THE FACT THAT IN 2006, 57% OF THOSE ATTENDING ONE OF THE MAIN CHURCHES OR DENOMINATIONS WERE WOMEN (BRIERLEY,2006) IMPLIES THAT RELIGION IS NOT AS OPPRESSIVE AS IT SUGGESTS. IT MAY HAVE POSITIVE IMPACT ON WOMEN'S LIVES, BUT THIS IS IGNORED |
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Women and resistance to religious oppression |
- Sociologists have come to acknowledge that women cannot always be seen as passive victims of religious oppression, and that religious practices are open to interpretation - Badawi (1994) notes that aspects of Islam are positive for women. E.g Islamic women keep their own family name when they get married - Holm (1994) notes that Quakerism is one religion that has always had relative equality between men and women. Holm also argues that women are starting to resist patriarchal religion and gain some rights, so religion is not as male dominated as it once was. - Wright (1994) notes that reform Judaism allows women to become rabbis. USEFUL - BECAUSE THEY ACKNOWLEDGE PROGRESS BUT NOTICE THAT THERE IS STILL WAYS TO IMPROVE THE POSITION OF WOMEN. |
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Religious sects and cults have existed for centuries, but the 1960s saw the growth of many new examples of these religious groups. Growth of Sects - MARGINALITY (6) |
Weber provided one of the earliest explanations for the growth of sects. -Argued that they were likely to arise within groups that were marginal in society. - Members of groups outside the mainstream of social life often feel that they are not receiving the rewards they deserve. - Some sects offer explanations for the disprivilege of members, and promise them a better future either on earth or in the afterlife. SO DO CHURCHES, WHY IS THIS SIGNIFICANT TO SECTS? - In part, the growth of sects such as Black Muslims in the USA in the 1960s was accomplished through recruitment from disadvantaged groups. However, most of the members of world-rejecting sects in the 1960s and 1970s came from young, white, middle-class backgrounds. - Wallis does not believe that this contradicts the marginality theory. Many of the fruits had become marginal in society because they were 'hippies', 'drop-outs' etc |
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Growth of Sects - RELATIVE DEPRIVATION (3) |
Relative deprivation refers to subjectively perceived deprivation. When a person or group feel deprived in comparison to others. People may seek salvation in the sense of community offered by sects. They do not lack material wealth, but they may feel spiritually deprived in a world they see as too materialistic, lonely and impersonal. |
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Growth of Sects - SOCIAL CHANGE (7) |
Wilson argues that sects arise during periods of rapid social change, when traditional social norms are disrupted. - He uses the example of the early Methodist movement, which had the characteristics of a sect. - This grew up as a response by the urban working class to industrialisation. - In a situation of change and uncertainty, it offered the support of a close community, clear norms and values, and a promise of salvation. - Bruce believes that the weakness of conventional religions has encouraged some people to consider less traditional alternatives. - As modern society developed, faith in traditional forms of authority declined and denominations became popular. - In contemporary secular societies, cults have become more popular because they require fewer sacrifices and less commitment than churches and sects. |
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The Growth of NRM |
- Wallis argues that NRM were attractive to young people in the 1960s because they offered a more spiritual and caring way of life. - Bruce believes that world-affirming movements have grown because people find it difficult to gain satisfaction and a sense of identity from their work in contemporary societies. - World-affirming movements offer people both success and a spiritual element to their life. |
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Short - Lived Sects (5) |
- Niebuhr argues that sects are inevitably short-lived and eventually either disappear or become denominations. This is because: - Children born inside the sect do not have the same level of commitment as their parents. The beliefs of the sect become watered down and it turns into a denomination - The charismatic leader may die and the sect loses support - Sects with an acetic creed work hard and spend little money. As members become better off they are no longer willing to accept the restrictions of sect membership and the ideology is relaxed. Some sects have also disappeared because of mass suicide e.g the People's Temple. |
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Long-Lived Sects (4) |
- Wilson points out that some sects survive for long periods. - Long-lived sects tend to have adventist beliefs: they believe that a judgement day is coming and only a few will get into heaven. This prevents them growing large enough to become denominations. - Evangelical sects, which try to recruit as many people as possible, may become denominations if they are successful. -Walllis takes a more complex view, arguing that NRM can change type rather than disappearing or becoming denominations. E.g they can move from being world-rejecting to being more world-affirming if members enjoy success. |
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Word-affirming sects |
-require less commitment and are therefore not likely to disappear. -they provide a service, but can lose support from the consumer. -they can encourage new clients instead of stopping e.g Transcendental Meditation offers meditation techniques. |
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World-accommodating sects |
- Most stable, may be like a denomination e.g Pentecostal church - and are most likely to remain |
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Troelsch saw a distinction between church and sect. |
Church - accept and affirm life in this world - member are from all classes in society, though particularly associated with higher classes - hierarchical - large membership - sometimes closely related to the state Sect -Exclusivist -Often led by a charismatic leader -Non-hierarchical -Full commitment -Reject outside world E.g Jehovah's witness |
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Denomination (Niebuhr) |
- They do not identify with the state - They generally accept the norms and values of society - Do not claim a monopoly of religious truth - Usually smaller than a church but still a formal organisation with a hierarchy of paid officials. - E.g Methodism |
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Cults |
- Tend to be more individualistic than other religions as they tend to lack a fixed set of beliefs - Tolerate other beliefs and their own beliefs are often vague - Often have customers rather than members, who may have little involvement with the organisation once they have learned the basics WALLIS: - No monopoly on truth - Deviant - Low levels of commitment |
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According to Wallis (NRM)... |
Due to the development of a range of new religions in the 1970s, it is better to categorise these differently as NRMs instead of sects or cults - He divides NRM into three main groups based on their relationship to the outside world |
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World- Reject NRM |
- Their ideology is highly critical of the outside world and their movement expects or seeks change - Charismatic/ Spiritual leader - High commitment - Minimum participation in the outside world, organisations of this type tend to control all aspects of their members lives, often accused of "brainwashing" - E.g The Moonies (Unification Church) who's leader Reverend Moon stated "I am your brain" BECKFORD QUESTIONS THE VALUE OF DEFINING SOME GROUPS AS 'WORLD-REJECTING'. IN HIS VIEW, NO GROUP IS ABLE TO REJECT THE WORLD ALTOGETHER. |
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World-Accomodating NRM (5) |
- Neither accept nor reject the world, they simply live in it - Concerned with religious rather than worldly questions - More tolerant of other religions. - They are usually offshoots of an existing major church or denomination, e.g Pentecostal groups are variants of Protestant religions - They seek to restore the spiritual purity to a religion that they believe has been lost in more conventional churches and denominations E.g Pentecostalists hold that belief in the Holy Spirit has been lost in other Christian religions BECKER ARGUES THAT WALLIS' CATEGORIES ARE DIFFICULT TO APPLY. IT IS NOT CLEAR WHETHER IT IS THE TEACHING OF THE MOVEMENT OR THE BELIEF AND OUTLOOK OF INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS THAT DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENT ATTITUDES TO THE WORLD. |
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World- Affirming NRM |
- Claim to be able to provide access to spiritual or supernatural powers, however, many lack functions normally associated with a religion - They accept the world as it is. - Focus on helping members succeed by unlocking spiritual powers within the individual. - There is little social control over members lives. - E.g Transcendental Meditation which is based on the Hindu religion claims that the meditation technique can provide 'unbounded awareness' which can have beneficial effects for individuals and society HOW NEW ARE THESE NRM? IT IS BASED ON HINDUISM IMPLYING THAT IT MAY NOT BE NEW AT ALL. - To Wallis, most world-affirming movements are cults, since they tolerate other religions, have a rapid turnover of membership and are relatively undemanding of their followers. BECKFORD ARGUES THAT WALLIS PAYS INSUFFICIENT ATTENTION TO THE DIVERSITY OF VIEWS THAT EXISTS WITHIN A SECT OR CULT. |
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Stark and Bainbridge are critical of all typologies, arguing that there are always overlaps between categories. |
- Instead, they categorise organisations in terms of continuum, ranging from organisations least in tension with society (church) to most in tension (sects and cults). Whilst denominations are in the middle - THey see sects as based on existing religion and cults as based upon a religion from another society Three types of cults: - Audience cults - minimal conact with followers e.g astrology - Client cults - offer services to followers and have more contact e.g scientology - Cult movements - involve members more comprehensively e.g The Unification Church (Moonies) |
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New Age intro |
- New Age has been applied to a range of ideas that started to become prominent in the 1980s - Although some of these beliefs become embodied in new religious movements, in many cases they were not attached to any organisation. - Examples of New Age beliefs and practices include: belief in magic, astrology, interest in meditation and therapy or participation in self healing |
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Heelas New Age 8 |
-Heelas believes the key features of the New age are - A belief in self-spirituality: people have turned away from traditional religious organisations in their search for the spiritual and have begun to look inside themselves - Detraditionalization: valuing personal experience above authority from traditional sources - the belief that you can become responsible for your own actions. It emphasises the freedom to discover your own truth - Heelas uses Wallis's typology of NRM to distinguish between different aspects of the New Age: -World-affirming aspects can help you to experience the best of the outer world e.g being more successful in business. -World-rejecting aspects stress how to experience the best in the inter world, how to achieve spirituality and turn away from any concern with worldly success -Most NA beliefs offer the best of both worlds, claiming you can be successful and spirituality fulfilled |
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Drane The Appeal of New Age 4 |
- Drane argues that the appeal of the New Age comes from the failure of the modern world to deliver personal satisfaction. -He believes people in Western societies no longer trust institutions such as the medical professions, and are disillusioned with the inability of churches to satisfy their craving for spirituality -Sees the popularity of the New Age as a part of a move towards postmodernity. -However, Bruce and Heelas both argue that the NA can best be explained a product of the latest stage of modernity, which emphasises individual freedom and choice. - Heelas examines four ways in which modernity might explain the appeal of the NA - People have many roles but there is little overlap between those roles. They end up with a fragmented identity - the NA offers ways of finding a single identity - Consumer culture creates dissatisfaction, as people fail to achieve the perfection portrayed by advertisers. The NA offers different ways of achieving perfection - Following Wilson, Heelas argues that periods of rapid social change disrupt social norms and values, so people seek certainty and security in spiritual beliefs. - The decline of conventional religion leaves people without strong alternatives to NA beliefs. |
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Bruce The Appeal of New Age 3 |
- Bruce claims that the NA appeals to the middle classes working in 'expressive professions' who have an interest in human potential - Many aspects of the NA are based on 'watered down' versions of Eastern religions such as Buddhism, however, unlike many of these religions, they emphasise the individual - The NA is popular because of the decline in mainstream religion, but it has much less influence on people and society than traditional religion had. |
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Ideology Intro 4 |
- Religious beliefs represent only one type of belief system in society. Other belief systems are political and scientific beliefs - Although followers of these different belief systems may see them as objective, others may see them as value-laden. - Value laden beliefs are those influences by the political or more preferences of a person, and are therefore at least partly subjective. - An ideology can be defined as a set of beliefs supporting the morals of a social group e.g the rich. Ideologies may be used to maintain the power of a social group. |
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Marxism/Neo-Marxists Ideology (10 2c) |
- Capitalism and other class based societies are dominated by a ruling class ideology. - In capitalism, the dominant class is the bourgeoise - the owners of the means of production. - They are able to control the superstructure of society, including its beliefs and values. - Marxists believe that in capitalist societies the dominant ideology encourages: - acceptable of capitalism as the best or most viable economic state - acceptance of the power of the capitalist state, - a consumer culture - a passive and dedicated workforce which does not question the low wages they receive. An example of this may be Bowles and Gintis' belief that there is a close relationship between social relationship in the workplace and in education, which is evident in the hidden curriculum and the 'myth' of meritocracy. - In contrast, Neo-Marxists criticise the classical Marxist view of ideology as it is too deterministic. They argue that it sees the beliefs of all member of society as directly determined by the economic system - Gramsci argues that members of society possess dual consciousness. They are partially influenced by the ruling class ideology because of the media, education system and religion that promote it. However, they also have direct experience of exploitation e.g low wages, therefore the working class are unlikely to fully accept the capitalist system. POSTMODERNISTS ARGUE THAT THE NEO-MARXISTS EXAGGERATE THE INFLUENCE OF CLASS ON CULTURE AND IDEOLOGY. THEY DENY THAT THERE IS A RULING CLASS AND ARGUE THAT CLASSES ARE NO LONGER SIGNIFICANT. - SIMILARLY, OTHER SOCIOLOGISTS INCLUDING FEMINISTS AND ANTI-RACISTS ARGUE THAT IDEOLOGY CAN REFLECT OTHER SOCIAL DIVISIONS APART FROM CLASS. On balance, whilst ideology can distort reality and disguise oppression, It seems that there is little evidence of widespread acceptable of Marxist ideology and his prediction of the end of capitalism has not happened. |
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Feminist Ideology 8 |
- See society as dominated by patriarchal ideology rather than the ruling-class ideology - Patriarchal ideology assumes that men are and should be dominant in society - Radical feminists are most emphatic about the dominance of patriarchal ideology - Millet sees ideological factors as important in maintaining male dominance. Males are socialised into having a dominant temperament, and the society's culture sees it as natural for men to have dominant roles. Myth and religion (e.g story of Adam and Eve) reinforce patriarchal ideology. However, Millett believes that non-ideological factors, such as the use of violence, are also important in maintaining males dominance. - In contrast, there are other feminists who do not accept the radical feminist view of ideology. - Bryson criticises the idea of patriarchy, arguing that it merely describes rather than explain gender inequality and ignores variations in the beliefs of women according to class and ethnic backgrounds. - Marxist and socialist feminists believe society is shaped by a combination of ruling class and patriarchal ideology. - On balance, whilst it may appear that we still live in a patriarchal society, it seems that women have still experienced a great amount of progress towards equality, suggesting patriarchal ideology cannot be referred to as the most influential ideology. |
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Political ideology |
- These map out the political and social world and seek to shape public policy. - Liberalism emphasises individual freedom to act as we please, equality of opportunity, equal chance of attaining status and that the government should protect but not infringe on freedom - Conservatism was a reaction to social change that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th century. Edmund Burke said during the French Revolution that change was a threat to stability so we must conserve traditional ideas and institutions. The State must maintain law and order. It stresses family as the cornerstone of society. - Socialism: This was response to capitalism in the 19th century. It is about collectivism, that everyone works for the common good, not self-interest. Private property should be abolished. Equality is good, it helps social cohesion. Capitalism brings about poverty and so socialists support the working classes who are oppressed; they want a society based on cooperation, not competition. On balance, it could be said that political ideologies seem to have more power than patriarchal or ruling class ideologies, however, it is apparent that they are still limited in their influences. This is especially evident by the results of the 2015 General Election, where 15.9 eligible voters did not vote. |
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Science Ideology |
- One belief system which is often seen as objective and therefore not ideological is science - Modern science began with the Enlightenment which was when rational philosophy flourished. This was the claim that reason could provide an understanding of the world and they could improve the lives of human beings. - The scientific method is based on reason and observation and therefore challenged the religious view that knowledge was based on divine revelation. - Kuhn challenged the tradition view of science; rejecting the idea that science is based on rationality and objectivity. He argues that science operates through paradigms: general theories of beliefs held by groups of scientists. - Each scientific paradigm has a social base, the scientists who have dedicated their careers to working within it. - Scientists tend to work within a shared paradigm, ignoring evidence which contradicts or fails to fit within the paradigm. - Only when many inexplicable anomalies are found does a scientific revolution take place, when the paradigm is replaced by a new one. - Postmodernist Lyotard argues that people have lost faith in meta-narratives like the Enlightenment view of progress, Christianity's view of life or Marx's view of progress. Meta- narratives no longer inspire or form the basis for beliefs. - Science is based on denotative language games, which are based upon whether statements are true or not. However, science has failed to solve old problems or prevent new ones arising, so people have turned against it. Denotative language games have been replaced by technical language games, concerned with whether things are useful rather than whether they are true. - On balance, it is apparent that most sociologists agree that science is an ideology and many of our beliefs are based on the observations and theories of science e.g modern genetics, Darwin's theory of evolution. - Most influential |
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What is Science and how is it different from Religion |
Firstly, one may ask what is science in order to identify how it may have replaced religion as the main ideological influence - Many of our beliefs are based on the observations and theories of science e.g modern genetics, Darwin's theory of evolution. - Modern science began with the Enlightenment which was when rational philosophy flourished. This was the claim that reason could provide an understanding of the world and they could improve the lives of human beings. - The scientific method is based on reason and observation and therefore challenged the religious view that knowledge was based on divine revelation. - The scientist can measure variables like temperature and pressure and these observations are objective, they are not influenced by the values or religious beliefs of the scientist. - Scientists have high status; their findings are generally accepted and tend to benefit human health and life expectancy |
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Science Objectivity |
some sociologists argue that science is not objective and is at least partly shaped by the social context in which it is practice. - Whilst Popper showed that theories can be tested through observation, he claimed that all we can say is that so far the theory has not been shown to be false. He stated 'Science does not rest on a bedrock' meaning that science is not a firm basis for knowledge. The systematic testing is an attempt to disprove them; if they are not disproved, they are accepted, but never fully proven. - Similarly, Kuhn challenged the tradition view of science; rejecting the idea that science is based on rationality and objectivity. He argues that science operates through paradigms: general theories of beliefs held by groups of scientists. - Each scientific paradigm has a social base, the scientists who have dedicated their careers to working within it. - Scientists tend to work within a shared paradigm, ignoring evidence which contradicts or fails to fit within the paradigm. - Only when many inexplicable anomalies are found does a scientific revolution take place, when the paradigm is replaced by a new one. |
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Postmodernist Science |
Some sociologists say we are in the late modern era and others say the postmodern era, but both agree that there are important changes in the attitudes to science. - Giddens argues that people have doubts over the Enlightenment beliefs about the potential of science to bring certainty on knowledge. It is thought scientific theories will never be revised and science may not improve the human condition. - Beck argues that some think science may create more harm than good. Due to globalisation, there may be greater risk of nuclear accidents. Some people are also suspicious of scientific advances like genetically modified food or stem cell research. - Lyotard argues that people have lost faith in meta-narratives like the Enlightenment view of progress, Christianity's view of life or Marx's view of progress. Meta- narratives no longer inspire or form the basis for beliefs. - Science is based on denotative language games, which are based upon whether statements are true or not. However, science has failed to solve old problems or prevent new ones arising, so people have turned against it. Denotative language games have been replaced by technical language games, concerned with whether things are useful rather than whether they are true. |
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Secularisation Intro |
- Wilson defines secularisation as 'the process whereby religious thinking, practice and institutions lose social significance'. - However, Bruce points out that there is no one secularisation theory and rather, there are clusters of descriptions and explanations that cohere reasonably well |
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Secularisation Participation |
- Some researchers have measured the importance of religion in society in terms of institutional factors such as church attendance, membership and participation in religious ceremonies. - Church attendance figures show a continuing drop in attendance throughout the twentieth century, particular in Anglican, Baptist, Catholic and United Reformed churches. - In 1985 the Census of Religion found that just under 40% of the population attending church. In 2005, it is estimated that only 6.8% of the adult population regularly attended church (Brierley 2005) DECLINE OF CHURCH ATTENDANCE IN BRITAIN CAN BE INTERPRETED IN A NUMBER OF DIFFERENT WAYS. MARTIN (1969) CLAIMS THAT IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY CHURCH-GOING WAS A SIGN OF MIDDLE-CLASS RESPECTABILITY, TO A GREATER EXTENT THAN IT IS TODAY.RELIGION TODAY MAY BE EXPRESSED IN OTHER WAYS. IT MAY HAVE BECOME PRIVATISED; PEOPLE DEVELOP THEIR OWN BELIEFS AND SEE RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS AS LESS IMPORTANT - There has been a decline in membership of religious organisations in the UK. Institutional Christian religions has declined the most, while many non-Christian and small religions have gained members.NINETEENTH-CENTURY STATISTICS POSE PROBLEMS BECAUSE OF THE METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION DO NOT MEET TODAY'S STANDARDS OF RELIABILITY. - Overall, the proportion of the population belonging to non-Christian religions doubled between 1975 and 2000 (Brierley, 2011)DIFFERENT CRITERIA'S ARE USED TO RECORD MEMBERSHIP IN DIFFERENT RELIGIONS - Globally, there has been a big increase in the proportion of Muslins in the world, and overall, a decline in the proportion of those who are not religious |
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DESACRILIZATION |
- Desacrilization - meaning that supernatural forces are no longer seen as controlling the world, and action is no longer directed by religious belief - Weber provided one of the earliest statements of the desacralisation theory - He believed that modern societies are characterised by disenchantment: they are no longer charged with mystery and magic; the supernatural has been banished from society - Instead they are based on rational action, the product of deliberate and precise calculation and logic - Following this idea, Bruce stresses the importance of rationalisation in undermining religious beliefs. - Technological advances have given individuals a greater sense of control over the natural world and less need to resort to supernatural explanations - There are some things that science and rationality cannot deal with, however, when people turn to God they do so as individuals and as a last resort, after all the rational and scientific possibilities have been exhausted - The theory of postmodernism suggests that societies have begun to move beyond the scientific rationality of modernity, partly because of a growing distrust of society. - People are increasingly aware of the failures of science (e.g failing to find a cure for AIDs) and the damaging side effects of science and technology (environment damage) GREELEY BELIEVES THAT THE GROWTH OF NRM REPRESENT A PROCESS OF RESACRILIZATION MEANING THAT INTEREST AND BELIEF IN THE SACRED ARE BEING REVIDED. IT IS ALSO APPARENT THAT SINCE THE 1980S THERE HAS BEEN GROWING INTEREST IN NEW AGE IDEAS - Bruce argues that NRM recruit very small numbers compared to the decline in mainstream Christian denominations. World-rejecting sects have affected the smallest number of people, whilst world-accommodating groups - who have the least influence on people's lives - have recruited the most - Bruce sees the growth of the New Age as posing little threat to the validity of the theory of secularisation. He believes that New Age beliefs are weak and temporary- HOWEVER, IN THE STUDY OF KENDAL IN CUMBRIA, HEELAS ET AL FOUND THAT NEW AGE BELIEFS ARE QUITE SIGNIFICANT TO THE LIVES OF MANY PEOPLE - THEY FOUND THAT MORE PEOPLE TOOK PART IN SOME SORT OF SPIRITUALLY INCLINED NEW AGE ACTIVITIES THAN ATTENDED ANGLICAN CHURCH- BASED ON CURRENT TRENDS, THEY ESTIMATE THAT THE NEW AGE MAY REPLACE CONVENTIONAL CHURCHES IN POPULARITY AROUND 2020. |
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RELIGIOUS PLURALISM |
- Religion may not be declining for all as it can be a source of identity for Jews/Muslims - D Martin shows the extent to which it provides a national identity. Examples of this are for Jews and and Muslims in Israel - Palestine and Roman Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland. - This may be the case as polarised communities gain social solidarity from religion which is the cement which binds them - Bruce identifies two main purposes that religion may have for ethnic groups: - Cultural defence: where two communities are in conflict and are of different religions, their religious identity becomes a way of asserting their ethnic pride - Cultural transition: religion is used as a resource for dealing with situations where people have to adjust their identity, this means that religion provides a function for migrants to the UK BRUCE ARGUES THAT THESE EXAMPLES DO NOT DISPROVE THE SECULARISATION THESIS BUT SHOW RELIGION IS MORE LIKELY TO SURVIVE WHEN IT PERFORMS ANOTHER FUNCTION OTHER THAN BELIEF IN THE SUPERNATURAL |
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Secularisation comparison to other countries |
Comparison to other countries - Davie argues that the strength of religion varies enormously between countries: In Europe many countries have low participation rates, but Poland and the Republic of Ireland have very high rates. Religion is also thriving in the USA, South Korea and much of the Islamic world - Bruce argues that secularisation applies only to pluralistic, democratic Western societies such as those found in Europe and North America. Such societies are fragmented and lack the strong communities needed to sustain religion as an important force in society - Secularisation in the USA- According to Herberg, the main evidence for secularisation in the USA is to be found in the decline of the religiosity of churches and denominations themselves.-These organisations have compromised their religious beliefs to fit in the wider society- America increasing reflect on the 'American way of life' rather than the word of God |
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Fundamentalism |
- Taylor (1987) defines fundamentalism as following a distinctive pattern: a group perceives a challenge to an ultimate authority, usually a god, in which they believe. The group decides that the challenge cannot be tolerated. They reaffirm their belief in the authority that is being challenged. They oppose those who have challenged the established beliefs and often use political means to further their cause.- If fundamentalists are successful, they succeed in defending traditional values, but they also change society by reversing innovation that has already taken place.E.g in the 1960s and the 1970s, Iran underwent a process of liberalisation. Attitudes to women changed and there were good relations with the West. In 1979 the Iranian revolution took place, partly inspired by fundamentalism, and these changes were reversed. - In this case, religious beliefs contributed to producing revolutionary change. In the case of Iran, religion did not act as a conservative force in the political sense, but in terms of supporting traditional values it was conservative. ONE MAY COMMENT THAT THE CAPACITY OF RELIGION TO EFFECT SOCIAL CHANGE MAY BE DETERMINED BY CULTURE. - Bruce sees fundamentalism as a religion which calls for a return to the 'Fundamentals of the Faith', claiming authority for a sacred text as the basis of regulating a society - Almond et al notes that fundamentalism is widespread and growing e.g amongst some Jews in Israel, Christians in the USA, Muslims in Pakistan - undermines the theory of secularisation |
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The causes of fundamentalism |
- Bruce believes that fundamentalism is caused by a group feeling their traditions are under threat from changes associated with modernization and secularization - According to Bruce, fundamentalism is more likely to develop when the following circumstances apply: (-) The religion has a single sacred text (e.g Bible) (-) There is a common enemy for believers (e.g the USA for many Muslims) (-) The religion does not have a central source of religion authority (e.g the Pope in RC) (-) There is a supply of potential recruits who feel threatened dispossessed or relatively deprived - This fundamentalism can turn violent in circumstances where democratic policies cannot be used to express grievances - Bruce sees Islam as being more prone to violent forms of fundamentalism than Christianity, because it places more emphasis on being religious through one's actions (ortho-praxis) than one's beliefs (orthodoxy) - Almond et al identifies similar factors to Bruce, but thinks the following are also important in encouraging the development of fundamentalism - low levels of education - high levels of social inequality - high levels of recent migration and the displacement of people by war - economic problems - Western imperialism resulting in anti-imperialist movement e.g Iranian opposition to the US involvement in religion They also point to contingency and chance - events such as poor harvests - as important, along with leadership to mobilise potential recruits |
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Religion and conflict |
- Huntingdon argues that sources of identity that are no religious have declined in significance. The world is now divided between civilisations e.g Western, Islamic, African.... - Religion is very important in differentiating most of these civilisations - Where these civilisations come into contact, conflict tends to break out e.g in clashes between Muslims and the West - Religion is therefore a key cause of conflict in the world today - Armstrong argues that economic and political factors are more important in causing conflict and than religion itself - Fundamentalist interpretations of Islam have become popular because of the failure of modernisation to bring prosperity to most ordinary Muslims, and the constant interference of Western countries to in the Islamic world - in ways in which are seen to damage Muslims but support Western interests - Bruce believes that the importance of religion in conflict varies. 1) Religion can be used to justify conflict which really concerns national or ethnic disputes, e.g First World War and Bosnia conflict in the 1990s. 2) It can also be a central cause of conflict e.g Osama Bin Laden and Al Qaeda have largely religious motives. 3) Religious and secular issues overlap so conflict can be over ethnicity, nationality e.g Israel and Palestine |
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Religion and Postmodernity - Bauman |
- Bauman believes that in modernity people always search for universal truths (theories that are always true) - Postmodernity rejects the idea of universal truths and denies that other people have authority over you. Instead people have an almost unlimited choice as what to do and how to behave - However, without the rules found in modernity and the idea that a rational plan can be devised to perfect society, people have to make their own ethical choices - Without agreed ethics in society as a whole morality is privatised as a personal choice ONE MAY COMMENT THAT FAMILY, CULTURE AND ETHNICITY STILL HAS A BIG IMPACT ON INDIVIDUAL RELIGIONS. - People continue to want guidance in what rules to follow, and they turn to expects for advice. Religious leaders are expects in morality, so some people look to them for help. BECKFORD ARGUES THAT BAUMAN CONTRADICTS HIMSELF BY ARGUING BOTH THAT PEOPLE MAKE THEIR OWN CHOICES AND THAT THEY TURN TO RELIGIOUS EXPERTS FOR GUIDANCE. - Unlike the modern era, people can turn to any religious leaders, not just the ones they were brought up to respect - This leads to more interest in religion and much greater religious plurality; people can also change their beliefs if they wish - Whatever beliefs they follow, however, they take them less seriously than they did in the modern era BECKFORD ARGUES THAT BAUMAN EXAGGERATES CHANGES IN RELIGION. RATHER THAN DECLINING IN MODERNITY AND REVIVING IN POSTMODERNITY, RELIGION HAS BEEN CONTINUOUSLY IMPORTANT THROUGHOUT HISTORY |
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Postmodernity - Lyon |
- believes that postmodern elements are developing in society with globalisation, the development of information technology and the growth of consumer society - This lead to people having greater choices including choice of gods ONE MAY COMMENT THAT PEOPLE DO NOT CONSIDER CHANGING RELIGIONS OR EXPLORING DIFFERENT ONES BUT REJECT RELIGION ALL TOGETHER - Because of these changes, religion is relocating to the sphere of consumption - People are unwilling to be forced to accept the authority of Christian church religion, but are willing to choose a religious narrative that appeals to them - E.g Canada 75% of people do not attend church regularly, but 80% of non-attenders are still influenced by religious beliefs. - Religion is no longer a social institution but rather a cultural resource on which people can draw if they wish. - E.g a religious event, the Harvest Day Crusade, has been held as Disneyland in Carlifornia, showing how religion is becoming another part of consumer culture and mixing with the postmodern fantasy of Disney ONE MAY COMMENT THAT RELIGION IS IN FACT EXCLUDED FROM SOCIAL LIVES DUE TO RELIGIOUS PLURALISM -Dedifferentiation is taking place - a blurring of the boundaries and differences between different parts of social life. In this case, the distinction between religion and popular culture is being affected. BRUCE SEES THE CHANGES DESCRIBED BY LYON AS EVIDENCE OF THE SECULARISATION OF SOCIETY RATHER THAN OF A REVIVAL OF RELIGION IN A POSTMODERN WORLD. TODAY ONLY WEAK RELIGION IS LEFT - RELIGION THAT HAS LITTLE REAL INFLUENCE ON PEOPLES LIVES. |
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Postmodernity and The New Age |
- Heelas does not see the New Age as part of postmodernity but admits there are a number of ways it could be interpreted as postmodern, e.g - Postmodernity is often seen as involving detraditionalization. Traditional churches and denominations are declining while NA becomes more popular, could be seen as religious postmodernism - Postmodernity is often seen as involving relativism - known is seen as a matter of personal opinion rather than of facts. The NA fits this description, as individuals can pick what aspects the wish to follow - However, Heelas argues the NA is not postmodern but part of the latest stage of modernity. This is because: - The NA is ultimately based on metanarrative - some New Agers take their belief as seriously as followers of traditional religions - The NA is based upon an extreme version of individualism, which is a key feature of modernity - Many aspects of new age are not really new but have a long history. E.g spiritualism. Their origins predate the time when postmodernism is supposed to have started Heelas concludes that there is no clear dividing line between a modern and a postmodern era, and the changes in religion such as the spiritual revolution can be seen as a continuation and development of the trends in modernity. |
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Giddens High Modernity |
- sees changes in religion as part of the latest stage in development, which he calls high modernity - The central features of late modernity is increased reflexivity - constant monitoring of and reflection on social life in order to improve it - Reflexivity produce a questioning of religion but it also undermines individuals' sense of self - People no longer blindly follow tradition but have to make conscious choices about who they are and what they want to become BECKFORD SEES A WEAKNESS OF GIDDENS' CLAIM THAT RELIGION IS BASED UPON REFLEXIVITY,WHICH COULD JUST EASILY LEAD TO PEOPLE CHOOSING ATHEISM AS TURNING TO RELIGION - Unlike earlier stages of history, people have to see what, if any, religious beliefs to follow rather than adopting the same as their parents - Fundamentalism is the response to a society in which there is no certainty and tradition has lost its influence - In a globalised world, in which competing religions exist side by side, some people react against the uncertainty and seek definite answers about how to live their lives, by adopting a rigid interpretation of their particular religion. |
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Class - Religiosity 4 |
- Marxist theory suggests that religion develops in response to class exploitations. It develops first among the exploited classes but is adopted by higher classes to legitimate their position - Neo-Marxists such as Maduro see radical religions such as liberation theology as a response to exploitation, as a group develops class consciousness - Different types of religion, spirituality and religious organisations appeal to different classes - e.g the New Age to middle-class professionals in expressive professions; world-rejecting NRM to lower socioeconomic classes or marginal groups; world-affirming movements to higher socio-economic classes. |
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Gender - Religiosity |
- Women are more religiously active than men. In 2005, 57% of those attending one of the main churches or denominations were women (Brierley, 206) - Opinion polls suggest women are more likely to believe in God, and research by Modood et al found that Muslim women were more likely than Muslim men to see religion as 'very important' - A large majority of New Age followers are women - Miller and Hoffman identify two main reasons for female religiosity: (-) Differential socialisation - women are socialised to be more submissive, passive and obedient than men, and these characteristics fit well with being religious (-) Women have a different structural location to men - being less likely to do paid work than men they have more time for religion. Religion gives women a sense of identity whereas men get their sense of identity from their job. Women also socialise children through taking them to church, which increases their own attendance. OUTDATED -Miller and Hoffman argues that even taking this into account, women are more religious than men. This is because, according to survey research, women are less willing to take risks and not believing in religion can be seen as risky behaviour. - Bruce argues that female religiosity links to femininity, which is less aggressive and goal-orientated than masculinity and therefore fits well with the 'healing' and 'channeling' in New Age beliefs. Male 'New Agers' as more interested in parapsychology - Bruce argues secularisation has increasingly restricted religion to the private sphere, which is more a female sphere. Men in the public sphere have lost religiosity because of secularisation - Bruce argues that working class women have retained stronger religious beliefs than middle-class women due to a lack of control over their lives |
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Religion - Ethnicity |
- The 2001 Census found that more than half of British Chinese had no religion, as did 15% of White British, 11% of Afro-Caribbeans but onl 0.43% of Bangladeshis. - Religion of ethnic minority groups largely reflect place of origin e.g over 90% of Pakistanis and Bangladeshis said they were Muslim, 25% of those of Caribbean origin belonged to New Protestant Chuhrches such as Seventh Day Adventists - Modood et al found 62% of Muslims attended a service/prayer meeting weekly, compared to 57% of Caribbean members of New Protestant churches, 29% of White Roman Catholics and 27% of Hindus - Bird finds that greater religiosity of ethnic minorities reflects the stronger religious beliefs of their originating countries. Religion acts as a basis for community solidarity following migration to an unfamiliar country, and serves to maintain cultural identity for minorities. Religion can also help disadvantaged minority groups cope with oppression and injustice e.g Pentecostalist religion in the Afro-Caribbean community in Bristol - Bruce argues that ethnic minority religions are popular largely for social reasons rather than as an expression of strong religious commitment. Religion enables cultural defence (the maintenance of a sense of identity and pride) and cultural transition (coping with the upheaval of migration) Bruce believes ethnical minority religions are no declining as a result of being exposed to secularisation in Britain - Chryssides argues that ethnic minority religions has followed one of three paths: (-) apostasy - where religion is abandoned in the face of hostility (-) accommodation - where practices are modified to take account of the changed environment (-) renewed vigour - where the religion is asserted strongly in response to hostility On the whole ethnic minority religions have not followed apostasy but have remained vigorous and have even attracted some converts. - The English Church Census (2006) found that attendance by ethnic minorities at Christian churches rose between 1998 and 2005, but Modood et al found that younger members of ethnic minorities were a little less religious than older members |
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Religion - Age |
- The average age of churchgoers has risen from 37 in 1979 to 45 in 2005 - Heelas et al found that most people involved in the New Age are middle-aged or older - Voass and Crocket identify three possible reasons for this age profile: (-) People get more religious as they get closer to death and experience life events such as having children (-) It could be a period effect: those born in a particular period could be more religious (-) The differences could be due to the progressive decline of religion Using data from the British Social Attitudes Survey, Voass and Crocket found little evidence for people overall getting more religious as they age, or for a cohort effect (period effect). They concluded that the decline of religion was responsible. Each generation was less likely to socialise children into their religion than the one before HEELAS ET AL CLAIM THAT SPIRITUAL BELIEFS ARE ACTUALLY GROWING - EACH GENERATION REACHING MIDDLE AGE IS SHOWING MORE INTEREST THAN THE MIDDLE ONE |
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Religion Function Globalised |
- Hinduism and consumerism Globalisation has created a scientifically educated urban middle class in India; secularisation theory predicts this group will be the first to abandon religion and yet only 5% said their religiosity has weakened in the last 5 years, while 30% said they had become more religious (Survey by the Centre for the study of developing studies, 2007) - There has also been a growth in religious tourism - visits to shrines and temples so that it''s seen to be fashionable to be religious (Nanda, 2008) Hindu Ultra nationalism - The idea that Indian culture is superior to others; the Pew Global Attitude Survey found 93% Indians believed this. India's success in the global market is attributed to the belief in the superiority of Hindu values, culture and identity. The worshipping of Hindu gods has become the same as worshipping the nation of India - it has become a 'civil religion'. - Berger argues that Pentecostalism in Latin America acts as a 'functional equivalent' to Weber's Protestant work ethic; Pentecostalism demands an sacetic way of life, abstinence from alcohol and personal discipline. Thus, religion appears to encourage people to prosper and become upwardly mobile |
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Fundamentalism |
- The term fundamentalism has caused media concern who have associated it with international Islamist terrorism. However, the term 'fundamentalism' can also be applied to Protestant evangelical Christians. - Giddens - fundamentalism is a product of and a reaction to globalisation. In our late modern age, people are faced with choice and fundamentalism offers a rigid set of dogmatic beliefs which are attractive to some in an uncertain world. It is a reaction against a globalising world which demands rational reasons - Bauman sees fundamentalism as a response to living in postmodernity - some choose it because it offers truth and certainty. Two responses to postmodernity (-) resistant identity - respond to postmodernity by joining a fundamentalist community because they feel threatened BECKFORD - FUNDAMENTALISM MAY NOT BE A DEFENSIVE REACTION, IT MAY JUST BE REINVENTING TRADITION (-) Project Identity - others respond by joining a social movement like environmentalism/feminism because they want to be forward lookingBECKFORD - THEY IGNORE HOW GLOBALISATION MAY NOT BE AFFECTING NON-FUNDAMENTALIST RELIGIONS LIKE ROMAN CATHOLICISM. |
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Cultural Defence |
- Two examples of religion as a cultural defence of national identity are Poland and Iran. Religion grew in the face of political domination by an external power - Poland - from 1945-89, Poland was under communist rule imposed by the Sovient Union. The Catholic Church was suppressed but religion still embodied their national identity. The RC church gave support to the Solidarity free trade union movement in the 1980s and this led to bring about the fall of communism. Thereafter, the Church gained greater influence on Polish politics - Iran - Islam became the focus for resistance led by the Ayotollah Khomeini - a Muslim cleric against the Western capitalist powers and oil companies who supported the overthrow of the democratic government in the 1950s in order to instal a pro western government. The revolution of 1979 led to the Islamic Republic, where clerics help power and imposed the Shariah law on the country. - Both Poland and Iran are examples of religion as cultural defence against a perceived enemy and the translation/ global element is important for an understanding of the role religion played. |
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Religion Conflict |
- Religion has been at the centre of global conflicts: e.g 9/11, the subsequent bombings in Madrid, Bali and London - Huntington argues that these are symptoms of a 'clash of civilisations'. - Civilisations include Western, Latin America, Islamic - there is a common cultural background and shared religion. - In a globalised world, religious differences have become a source of identity. - This causes there to be an increase in competition for economic and military power. INGLEHART AND NORRIS ARGUE USING THE DATA FROM THE WORLD VALUES SURVEY, THAT THE ISSUE WHICH DIVIDES THE WEST FROM THE MUSLIM WORLD IS NOT DEMOCRACY BUT SEXUALITY - IN ISSUES SUCH AS ABORTION, DIVORCE, GENDER EQUALITY AND GAY RIGHTS. VALUES HAVE BECOME MORE LIBERAL IN THE WEST AND REMAIN MORE TRADITIONAL IN THE MUSLIM WORLD - He predicts growing conflict between the West and the rest and urges the West to reassert its Christian identity |
