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107 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Mass Media |
A method of transmitting information/entertainment to a large scale audience |
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3 types of media organisations |
.Privately owned eg. Sky .Publicly owned eg. Channel 4 .State Owned eg. BBC |
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Vertical Intergration |
Owning many means of the media Eg. Rupert Murdock owning newspapers, tv etc |
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Horizontal Intergration |
Owning all aspects of a media and the means to produce it Eg. owning newspapers, the printing companies, the reporters etc |
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Transnational Ownership |
Owning media globally Eg. Rupert Murdock owning newspapers in Australia, America, England etc |
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Pluralism: (general overview) |
.Sees western societies as representative democracies. Population's concerns and interests are represented equally .Media Deregulation (increasing public companies) give people what they want .Media represents wide range of views to cater to all .Bias reflects the majority .Concentration is positive |
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Evaluation of Pluralism: (Bagdikian 2004) |
.Concentration of USA media companies is bias to right-wing views (little room for radical/liberal ideas) .Local news taken over by large coperations .Choice narrowed - TV/Radio offer same reality/sitcoms/soaps/movies (Limits diversity and opinion) .Media fails to operate in public interest |
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Evaluation of Pluralism: Drive for Profit
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.BBC funded by license fee, required to inform, educate and entertain by law .Others funded by advertising for profit
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Drive for Profit: McCullagh 2002 |
Political coverage being replaces by infotainment; human interest stories, celebrity gossip etc
Agrees with Franklin |
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Drive for Profit: Franklin 1997 |
Agrees with McCullagh
Investigative journalists have been replaced by celebrities and presenters |
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Drive for Profit: Advertising Curran & Seaton 1997 |
Advertisment has become a major source of revenue - Targeted at audience with purchasing power eg. Elderly and Children
This leads to decline in diversity of media output |
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Media Ownership Influence: Instrumental Approach |
Media owners influence media output by using their publications to put across conservative beliefs (choosing how to portray) |
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Media Ownership Influence: Structural Approach |
Directly influence media output by setting the tone and politics of their product -Williams 2003
Can create false class consciousness; owned by MC white men aimed at WC people. Promotes capitalism as positive and beneficial
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Media and Marxism: overview |
.Media form of ISA (Althusser) .Milliband - Media is the new opium of the people .MC use media to promote capitalism as benifitial as media reflects the economic base
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Media and Marxism: Marcuse 1964 |
Entertainment programs divert peoples attention away from the unfair nature of society and thus prevents revolution
(Alienation) |
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Media and Marxism: Gramsci |
Hegemony - accepting a set of beliefs without question and allowing it to dominate over the ideas and beliefs of others |
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Media and Marxism: Evaluation |
.Pluralism - the media is not an instrument of oppression, the concerns of major groups in society are represented .Rise of citizen journalism .Media does not always reflect dominant ideology |
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Economic globalisation |
Integration of markets in the global economy e.g. Oil, financial |
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Cultural Globalisation |
Transmission of ideas, norms and values globally. Usually exhibited in western countries spreading dominant western values to less developed Asian and African countries
e.g. Nestle selling baby milk powder to mothers in poorer countries |
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Cultural Imperalism |
The idea that one culture is dominant over others and is promoted as the ideal norm for all countries to conform to, usually western (American) culture |
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Media Imperialism |
The idea that smaller countries are losing their identity due to dominance of media from larger nations e.g. Mcdonalds and similar American fast food chains are world wide |
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Media and Cultural Imperialism: Evaluation Cultural responce |
Ang 1985 - |
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Media and Cultural Imperialism: Evaluation National and Regional Broadcasting |
Aljazeera - Arabic news that operates globally providing wide range of global news stories |
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Media and Cultural Imperialism: Evaluation Minority Ethnic Media |
Media targeted at ethnic minorities help keep cultural identity e.g. Hispanic Business Magazine Black Entertainment Television Ebony Magazine |
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Construction of the News: 3 main influences Williams 2003 |
1. Power of those who work in the media (journalists) 2. Influence of organisational structures (routines of news organisations and occupational socialisation of journalists vital) 3. 24 Hour Cycle (events occurring within this are less likely to be reported) |
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Construction of the News: News Values Hetherington1985 |
-> Significant (to demographic) ->Drama ->Personalities (e.g. Celebrities) ->Sex, Scandals, Crime ->Numbers (of people involved) ->Proximity (is it near to us) |
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Construction of the News: Objectivity Tuchman 1978 |
. Journalists TRY to be objective . Facts and opinions are separate . Different sides given with supporting evidence
In practice, this means powerful voices are given prominence e.g. Government
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Construction of the News: Frameworks Hall et al |
News media place events within 'frameworks' - good and evil are used for contrast - powerful groups are able to act as primary definers |
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Construction of the News: Frameworks Evaluation |
Powerful groups can conflict over interpretation of events e.g. Iraq war, Furgerson -> citizen journalism vs news - Investigative news journalists can also be primary definers e.g. Mark Daly's Secret Policeman 2003 |
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Construction of the News: GUMG (Glasgow University Media Group) |
News is gathered and presented in a way that reflects the background of journalists and editors -Unconsciously side with rich/power as they have more in common with them -Representations of poor/powerless ignored e.g. strike workers Media do not reflect public opinion, they engage in 'agenda setting', providing the framework |
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Moral Panics: Allan 1999 |
Journalists often claim the news represents a mirror on the world The news gives and accurate and impartial reflection of events
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Moral Panics: Cohen 1960's |
Mods and Rockers~ -Youth subcultures - media greatly exaggerated and distorted violence between groups -police increased -more arrests made -disturbances became more common |
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Moral Panics: Folk Devils |
a label used by the mass media to describe a group who's behaviour is seen as a threat to social order |
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Moral Panics: Features Goode & Ben-Yehuda 1994 |
1. Activity gains media attention 2.Agencies of control respond 3. Deviance becomes amplified 4. Exaggeration symbolisation prediction 5. Problem is redefined |
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Moral Panics: Evaluation Critcher 2003 |
-Media is not always able to trigger a moral panic by identifying a folk devil, societal consensus is necessary for its development e.g. gay-plague AIDs and HIV moral panic failed because experts challenged it -Moral panics can linger for years, disappearing and reappearing |
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Media Representations: Process of message trajectory- Message Formulation |
How the particular media message is put together and by whom is very significant |
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Media Representations: Process of message trajectory- Message Content |
What is induced/left out in the media reflects the values of those who formulated the message eg. interests of the powerful |
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Media Representations: Process of message trajectory- Audience Interpretation |
Messages are interpreted in different ways |
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Media Representations: Process of message trajectory- Treatment of social groups |
Opinions of social groups are formed by the recipient and interpretation of the media message given out |
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Media Representations: Stereotypes Lipman 1922 |
'The little pictures we carry around in our head'
The widely held beliefs about the characteristics of a social group |
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Media Representations: Gender Bob Connell 1995 |
Cultural expectations of gender roles in the UK is still the product of hegemonic ideas of how the sexes should behave as adults -Men are 'Breadwinners'. Masculine identity is competitive, aggressive and ambitious -Women have domestic roles. Feminine identity is less rational, more emotional/neurotic |
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Media Representations: Gender Bob Connell - Patriarchal Ideology |
Hegemonic gender roles constitute a patriarchal ideology that assumes masculinity is dominant. This idea is transmitted through the family via gender role socialisation and mass media |
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Media Representations: Gender Symbolic annihilation of women |
Describes the way women's achievements are condemned/ignored by the media 1.Women's achievements rarely appear in the news 2.Women's sport coverage is minimal; treated differently to men's. Often subject to male gaze (Duncan + Messner 2005) 3.Men vastly out number women in the media - on Cebeebies only 30% of main characters are female |
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Media Representations: Gender Advertising - The Beauty Ideal Wolf 1990 |
Media presents a particular physical image of women as normal. This is often unrealistic, leading to increased cases of anorexia and bulimia in young females (particularly teenagers) |
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Media Representations: Gender Advertising - The Beauty Ideal Orbach 1991 |
Agrees with Wolf
Lays a large blame for eating disorders on the distorted and idealised images of women in the media |
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Media Representations: Gender Advertising - The Beauty Ideal Cumberbatch 2004 |
Youth and beauty are the main features of women in commercials and that women occupy a decorative role for men
Study of television commercials reflected an "unacceptable face of sexism" and contribute to patriarchal ideas |
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Media Representations: Gender - Women Evaluation
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-Some representations very positive. Shows such as 'Being Human', 'Eastenders' and 'Harry Potter' have assertive female characters
Although, these characters often have problems such as unable to maintain relationships or being neurotic |
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Media Representations: Gender Men in the Media Children Now 1999 |
Media portrayals of men fall within stereotypes ->Joker ->Strong, Silent type ->Jock ->Big Shot ->Action Hero Men rarely shown as emotional or sensitive. Men rarely shown doing housework, when they are they are often inept e.g. Oven Pride advert |
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Media Representations: Gender The new man |
In the 1980's men began to be shown as more emotional and less agressive |
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Media Representations: Gender The Metrosexual Male Mest 1988 |
Attitudes towards masculinity changed; reflected men's increased interest in fashion and toilletries |
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Media Representations: Gender Retributive Masculinity Rutherford 1999 |
Rejects metrosexuality, magazines such as 'Nuts' and '200' symbolise a reinforcement of men's stereotypical masculinity |
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Media Representations: Gender Feminism |
Liberal - Media is slowly improving as more women rise to positions of influence within media occupaions Marxist Feminists - Sex sells, the need to attract an audience is the primary factor of media actions Radical - Retributive masculinity is a social backlash against gains made by women |
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Media Representations: Gender Postmodernism Gauntlett 2008 |
The relationship between the media and its audience is complex and the people respond to the images portrayed in a number of ways |
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Media Representations: Gender Pluralism |
The media meets the needs of males and females.
The media is giving the audience what it wants |
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Media Representations: Sexuality Representations of teenage sexuality Batchelor et al 2004 |
Media analysis of magazines and tv shows: |
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Media Representations: Sexuality Homosexuality Gerbner et al 1986 |
Media is guilty of symbolic annihilation of gays and lesbians. They are eaither portrayed unrealistically or not at all |
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Media Representations: Sexuality Gay Stereotypes Craig 1992 |
->Effeminate and Camp ->Macho ->Devient ->Flamboyant |
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Media Representations: Sexuality Soap Operas |
Less stereotypical, more likely to challenge stereotypes
BBC 'flooded' with 145 complaints after airing gay kiss before 9pm |
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Media Representations: Sexuality Evaluation Gauntlett |
LGBT+ people still under represented, but it is improving with gay (Cpt. Jack Harkness), lesbian (Irene Adler) and bi (Korra) characters |
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Media Representations: Sexuality Evaluation |
Gill 2007 - Gay images sanitised so as not to scare away advertisers
Queer as Folk: Russel T Davies serise realistically portrays gay sexual practises |
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Media Representations: Sexuality Advertising Commercial Closet 2004 |
Counted 1700 ads from 33 countries. Found: 1.Increased acceptance of gays+lesbians 2.Increased 'Pink £ Power' -> Ikea first gay advert 1994 3.Gill: gay imagery aimed at heterosexual audience |
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Media Representations: Sexuality Conclusion |
Gay and lesbian rights have been reduced to consumer choice Increase in positive representations, but equality has not yet been achieved and there is a long way to go |
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Media Representations: Disability Definition |
Medical Model- Disabled by mental/physical impairments
Social Model- Disabled by societies limitations
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Media Representations: Disability Under representation Agyeman 2003 |
Content analysis of representations on TV 1993-2002 -Disabled people appeared infrequently -Little change over the years -Limited to medical model |
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Media Representations: Disability 10 Stereotypes Barnes 1992 |
->Pitiful/Pathetic ->Objects of Violence ->Sinister/Evil ->Atmospheric/Curious ->Super cripples ->Objects of ridicule ->Own worst enemy ->Burden ->Sexually abnormal ->Incapable of normal community life
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Media Representations: Disability Effect of Telethons Roper 2003 |
Representations can create problems for people with disabilities as telethons rely on cute children who are not representative. Telethons encourage the general public to alleviate their guilt by giving money rather than being informed |
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Media Representations: Disability Effect of Telethons Karpf 1988 |
There is a need for charities but telethons are about entertaining the public rather than helping us to understand the reality of having a disability. Consequently, these media representations confirm social prejudices e.g. that they are dependant on the help of able bodied people |
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Media Representations: Disability London Paralympics 2012 Bournemouth University Media School |
-Paralympics had a noticable impact on the way disabled sport is talked about -Viewers more enthusiastic than expected -Shift from seeing disability to seeing sporting excellence -viewers felt less uncomfortable about watching disabled sport on TV |
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Media Representations: Ethnicity Statistics |
-Ethnic minorities make up around 14% of the UK's population -Ofcom 2008- these groups are the front of new media e.g. mobile phones/TV -Some media representations do not accurately represent their lives |
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Media Representations: Ethnicity Stereotypical Representations Akinti 2003 |
TV coverage of ethnic minorities focuses on crime, Aids in Africa and black under achievement in school Little attention is given to the positive achievements of black people |
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Media Representations: Ethnicity Black Stereotypes Van Dijk 1991 |
-> Criminals -> Threat to White Culture -> Unimportant Compared to Whites -> Abnormal -> Dependant ->Invisible (Symbolic Annihilation) |
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Media Representations: Ethnicity Moral Panic of Rap Music Zylinska 2003 |
Started by home secretary David Blunkett -Artists like 50Cent and So Solid Crew accused of glorifying gun crime |
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Media Representations: Ethnicity Symbolic Annihilation BBC News on-line survey 2005 |
-Ethnic minority groups appeared in limited roles e.g. low status work -Little space given to minority interests -Advertisements show very few minority images -Tokenism -Black/Asian characters rarely shown as ordinary characters |
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Media Representations: Ethnicity Changes in Media Representations |
-More TV shows now show BME characters in non-stereotypical roles e.g. Eastenders -Racist and colonial representations in adverts are less prevalent -Social media campaign to ensure Mary Seacole remained on the GCSE History syllabus However: it is rare for BME actors to recieve star billing and negative stereotypes of islam are presant |
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Media Representations: Social Class Neo-Marxism Overview |
Mass media representations of social class rarely focus on social tensions or class conflict
Function of the media is to ensure the cultural hegemony of the dominant capitalist class |
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Media Representations: Social Class Representations of the Monarchy Nairn 1988 |
-Mass media rarely criticises the monarchy -Since WW2 the monarchy has re-invented itself as the royal family -This has resulted in a national obsession with every trivial detail of their lives being documented like a soap opera -Media views royal events as national events |
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Media Representations: Social Class Positive Representations of the Monarchy |
The media celebrate the activities of the monarchy and forgive their misdeeds, unlike those of WC celebrities like Jade Goody
Media forgave Prince Harry's and Philip's racism but not WC reality show contestant Jade Goody |
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Media Representations: Social Class Representations of the Upper Class Neo-Marxism |
-Wealth and hierarchy celebrated -Wealthy people rarely criticised in media -Little attention drawn to inequalities in wealth or the over representation of ex-public school pupils in power -Presented in rosy, idealised way |
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Media Representations: Social Class Representations of Wealth Reiner and Young 2007 |
Media represents the UK as a meritocratic society. Marxists argue that wealth is more important to success than ability |
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Media Representations: Social Class Representations of Wealth Cohen and Young 1981 |
Suggests that British culture is a monetary culture characterised by a 'Chaos of Reward' system
Business men rewarded for failure |
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Media Representations: Social Class Representations of the Middle Class |
-Over Represented -Large percent of British newspapers are aimed at M/C audience and their interests -Newspapers like the Daily Mail assume the M/C are nervous about the decline of moral standards -Most media personnel are M/C |
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Media Representations: Social Class Representations of the Working Class |
-Representations are part of capitalist ideology -Newman: few TV shows focus on W/C lives, when featured they are unflattering e.g.Homer Simpson -W/C people are presented as problems in the news e.g. Strikers
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Media Representations: Social Class Representations of the Working Class Curran & Seaton 2003 |
-Newspapers aimed at W/C audiences assume that they are uninterested in politics and similar important issues, instead focusing on celebrity lifestyles
Marxists see this as an attempt to alienate the W/C from capitalist oppression |
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Media Representations: Social Class Representations of Poverty and Underclass Newman |
Portrayals of the poorest in society are often the most negative and stereotypical.
Few TV shows focus on the effects of poverty |
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Media Representations: Social Class Chavs |
-The media has labelled the poor as 'Chavs' -used to imply poverty is the fault of the poor -discriminatory and offensive, used to portray people as dangerous -Webster 2007 - media presents chavs as social scum and the term serves to erode public sympathy |
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Media Representations: Social Class Chavs Owen Jones 2012 |
-Highlights the way that W/C representations have changed from 'salt of the earth' to 'scum of the earth' -Media uses divide-and-rule tatics as part of an ideological war against the W/C -Ruling class uses media to pit W/C people against eachother, weakening their position |
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Media Representations: Social Class Conclusion Cohen 2009 |
Representations of class reinforce stereotypes, blame the poor for their own poverty and fail to see the connection between deprivation and wealth
Media represents the powerful positivly |
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Media Representations: Age Children
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Previously seen as low-status family members
In today's society, families are child centered |
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Media Representations: Age Children McQueen 1998 |
The status of different age groups is determined by economic circumstances in western society -Those in the middle (adults) have the most power, as they are working/earning |
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Media Representations: Age 7 Stereotypes of Childhood McQueen 1998 |
->Victims ->Cute ->Little Devils ->Brilliant ->Brave Little Angels ->Accessories ->Modern |
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Media Representations: Age Childhood and Media Heintz-Knowles 2002 |
Children are represented as being interesting in matters like peer relationships, sport and romance. They are rarely shown coping with real life issues like divorce, bullying and racism
EV- Tracy Beaker, That's So Raven, Children in Need |
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Media Representations: Age Childhood and Media Evans & Chandler 2006 |
Pester Power~ Children are encouraged by advertisements and film merchandising to manipulate their parents into spending money on consumer goods, sometimes putting parents in debt E.g. Christmas + Santa |
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Media Representations: Age Youth Two Broad Representations |
Socially constructed - In terms of lifestyle + identity with their own magazines, download sites, phone apps etc
Social Problem - Moral panics etc |
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Media Representations: Age Youth Pearson 1983 |
-Current youth is always a problem in the media -There is a 'Golden Age' of 20 years ago that the media compares to current youth. No matter the year it's always 20 years ago |
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Media Representations: Age Youth Wayne et al 2007 |
Content analysis of 2130 TV news items during May 2006 -286 stories featured young people -82% presented them of victims/perpetrators of violent crime -1% featured a young person's opinion |
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Media Representations: Age Elderly Age Concern 2000 |
-21% of the population were aged 65+ but only 7% of the media representations (on TV) were
Elderly M/C white men more likely to be shown by women |
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Media Representations: Age Links to Age and Gender |
-Women's 'shelf life'; finding it difficult to find media work after age 40 -> Irene Philips replaced by Alesha Dixon on Strictly come dancing because of her age. Irene was not the oldest presenter. -Older men paired with younger women -Adverts for anti-aging products devaluate old age |
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Media Representations: Age Stereotypes of the Elderly |
Generally negative and one-dimensional ->Grumpy ->Mentally challenged ->Infantile ->Enjoying a second childhood ->Burden |
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Media Effects: Media and Human Behaviour |
-Suggested link between media and violence -Norris 1999 - media affects voting behaviour |
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Media Effects: Media and Human Behaviour 2 Stances on Media Effects |
1. Audience strong, media weak (Pluralism) 2.Audience weak, media strong (Marxism) |
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Media Effects: Hypodermic syringe model |
Audience passively accepts message injected into them by the mass media -Direct correlation between violent media and criminal behaviour -Explains violent crimes E.g. James Bulger case + 'Chucky: Child's Play', Adam Lanza + COD |
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Media Effects: Imitation and Copycat Violence Bandura |
Laboratory experiment, -Made film of women beating up BOBO doll -Children watched and imitated violent behaviour when left with BOBO doll -Children who did not watch film played peacefully with other toys |
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Media Effects: Imitation and Copycat Violence McCabe + Martin 2005 |
Media portrays violence as heroic, causing violent acts to be viewed as acceptable (dis-inhibition effect) |
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Media Effects: Desensitization Newton
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Exposure of violent killings creates a 'drip-drip' effect amounst young people
results in desensitization, behaviour becomes normal as we are socialised into accepting deviant behaviour |
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Media Effects: Mean World Syndrome Newton |
Normalisation of violence makes us more passive when exposed to the real thing -causes bystander effect -violence used to media to grab viewers attention -movies with sequals/remakes often have more violence/deaths than origionals (increased 'dosage') |
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Media Effects: Results of Newton's Studies |
->Video recordings (labelling) act 1985 resulted in all films having age certificates ->introduction of 9pm watershed
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Media Effects: Ofcom Survey 2008 |
2/3 of their sample of 12-13yr olds admitted video games had affected their behaviour |
