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104 Cards in this Set

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DEFINE:
analytical studies
descriptive studies
evaluative studies
analytical/explanatory studies-used to help explain what causes certain events or problems.

descriptive-studies used primarily to obtain information about a particular social problem/population

evaluative-studies used to estimate the effects of a specific social programs or study.
understand the first word
What is macrosociology and microsociology?
macrosociology- a level of sociological analysis concerned with large-scale units such as social systems and institutions.

microsociology- a level of sociological perspective that is concerned with small-scale units such as individuals in a small group interactions.
just like macro/microeconomics
What is sociology?
the study of social relationships, social institutions, and society.
What are the root words of sociology and there meanings?
socius-"companion or associate"
logus-"words"

"words of human association"
Define: Sociological Perspective

Why is it important?

What are the two socilogical perspectives?
Question the obvious by questioning them critically and objectively.

Importance:
Allows sociologists to empirical determine whether generalizations about society are accurate.

Macrosociological and microsociological.
Define:
social work
applied science
pure science
Social work- the field in which the principles of social behavior are applied to actual social problems.
applied science-the knowledge from "pure science" is used in actual practice.
pure science-area of science where knowledge is seek out for the own sake of it.
What are the 3 ways sociologists apply sociological knowledge in the work place?

What is social engineering?

Clinical sociology??
3 ways sociologists use sociological knowledge: descriptive, explanatory/analytical, evaluative.

Social engineering-attempting to change the way society, community, and institution is arranged to achieve a particular goal.

clinical sociology- using sociological perspectives to consult clients and institutions.
According to C. Wright Mills, "sociological imagination" enables us to ...

how?
enables us to distinguish between "personal troubles" and "public issues".

sociology gives us a better understanding that our personal problems stems from social forces
What is social science?
A science that is subject to matters of human behavior, social organizations, or society.
What is sociology?
the study of social relationships, social institutions, and society.
What are the root words of sociology and there meanings?
socius-"companion or associate"
logus-"words"

"words of human association"
Define: Sociological Perspective

Why is it important?

What are the two socilogical perspectives?
Question the obvious by questioning them critically and objectively.

Importance:
Allows sociologists to empirical determine whether generalizations about society are accurate.

Macrosociological and microsociological.
Define:
social work
applied science
pure science
Social work- the field in which the principles of social behavior are applied to actual social problems.
applied science-the knowledge from "pure science" is used in actual practice.
pure science-area of science where knowledge is seek out for the own sake of it.
What are the 3 ways sociologists apply sociological knowledge in the work place?

What is social engineering?

Clinical sociology??
3 ways sociologists use sociological knowledge: descriptive, explanatory/analytical, evaluative.

Social engineering-attempting to change the way society, community, and institution is arranged to achieve a particular goal.

clinical sociology- using sociological perspectives to consult clients and institutions.
According to C. Wright Mills, "sociological imagination" enables us to ...

how?
enables us to distinguish between "personal troubles" and "public issues".

sociology gives us a better understanding that our personal problems stems from social forces
What is social science?
A science that is subject to matters of human behavior, social organizations, or society.
Where did the discipline of sociology emerge?

Where did it develop?
Sociology emerged in Europe and the United States to improve human conditions.

It developed most in the U.S., first, at the University of Chicago and later in Harvard and Columbia.
What event in history provided sociologists new obstacles?
the industrial revolution.
Auguste Comte:
-Who is he?
-What did he call sociology?Why?
-What's the LAW of HUMAN PROGRESS?
-What are his views on society?
-How should sociology be studied?
-Father of Sociology
-called sociology, social physics because he believe society can be studied in the same manner as natural science.
-Law of Human Progress-all human growth passes through 3 states: theological, metaphysical, and scientific.
-He viewed society as an organism that evolves from simple to complex forms.
-Sociology should study the structure of the organism (social statics) and the function and change (social dynamics).
Herbert Spencer:
-what phrase did he coin?
-what are his views on society?
-what did his theory suggest?
-what class of people favored his theory?
-coined "survival of the fittest"
-his theory stressed that human societies evolved around principles of natural law, similar to Darwin's natural selection.
-his theory suggest a policy of non-interference in society and human affairs. Best one will come out on top.
- rich people favored it. (laissez-faire)
Karl Marx:
-What is his general belief about society?
-social conflict?
-economic determinism?
-what does the conflict between owners and workers lead to?
-What do alienation develop into?
-Those who have power dominate and exploit those who don't.
-Social conflict is at the core society and its social changes
-economic determinism- the belief that economic factors are responsible for most social change and for the nature of social conditions. Marx explains economic inequality results in class struggles between bourgeoisie(owns means of production) and the proletariat(who sells their labor).
-lead to ALIENATION, the feeling of disconnection from work and life among workers.
-Alienation leads to class consciousness, awareness that society is segregated, leading to a social revolution, resulting in better social improvements.
Emile Durkhiem:
-What is he known for?
-What is his view on individuals and society?
-What theories came from his studies on suicide?
-How is social integration achieved?
-his studies on suicide.
-individuals are more of the product and not creators of society, and society is external to the individuals.
-What did his suicide studies show?
a)human behavior can only be understood only by investigating the social context in which the behavior takes place.
b)the more an individual is integrated into an intimate social group,the less likely he is to commit suicide.
-It's achieved through people's mutual dependence and acceptance of a system of common beliefs.
Max Weber:
-What did he want sociologists to believe?
-How can sociologists understand the mind of individuals?
-sociologists should study Social actions, external objective behaviors, and subjective meaning individuals put on their own and others behaviors.
-using the approach of Verstehen, contrasts Marx theory.
-Robert E. Park: contribution and theory
-Talcott Parsons: importances
-Robert Merton: contribution
-Park developed social ecology. He emphasized the importance of social interaction in the development of human thought and actions
-became the most prestigious sociologist in the U.S.
-came up with Middle Range Theory: link general theory to empirical testing.
Macrosociological Perspectives

-Evolution theory: Define

-Structural Functionalism
Definition, Tendency, manifest and latent functions, functional vs dysfunctional

-Conflict Theory:
Definition,
differences between functionalist and conflictists
-societies progress through stages of increased complexities. (intervention vs. no intervention)
-Structural Functionalism- focuses on the STRUCTURES, the parts of the social systems, and the FUNCTIONS or the purposes of these structures
-Tendency: the social system is often in equilibrium and any systems that fails its function will result in disequilibrium.
-manifest- intended and recognize.
-latent-neither intended or manifested
-functional-tend to maintain
-dysfunctional-lead to instability of system.

-Conflict theory
-conflict is a permanent part of society, therefore, society is in constant change.

-difference between conflict and functionalists

funct-believe social process is a continual process to maintain harmony
conflict-social process causes conflict and change
Microsociological perspective

-Symbolic Interactionism
Define, general meaning

-Exchange theory:
Define, Homan vs Blau: type of justice and belief
-symbolic interationism
Define: symbolic interaction theory emphasizes that people act on the basis of their interpretation of the language and symbols in a situation and not the situation in and of itself

-Exchange Theory:
social life is viewed as a process of bargaining or negotiation. Social relationships are based on trust and mutual interests.

-homan-"distributive justice"
believed actual observable behavior
-Blau-"fair exchange"
exchange is subjective and interpretive.
Other Theoretical Perspectives
-Sociobiology
-Humanistic
-SECULAR HUMANISM
-Feminism
-Sociobiology
belief that genetic and biology determines behavior
-Humanistic
Efforts should be made toward achieving social justice and equity for everyone, irrespective of gender or race.

-SECULAR HUMANISM
problems not solve by god but by humans own actions.
-Feminism
belief that gender is basic to all social structure and organization.
List the Macrosociological and Microsociological perspective.
Macrosociological:
Evolution, structural, and conflict

Microsociological:
Symbolic and Exchange
Is Sociology a science?

Yes or No?
Yes-they use scientific method techniques

No-Behavior is to complicated to use scientific method on.
Components of Scientific Theory
-Concept
-Proposition
-Hypothesis
-Directional Hypothesis
-Null Hypothesis
-Theory
Concept: abstract system that allows us to perceive a phenomenon in a certain way

Proposition:a statement about the relationship between two or more concepts

Hypothesis:states what's being testing

Directional Hypothesis: hypothesis that involves direct or inverse relationships

Null Hypothesis:no relationship between the variables of interest

Theory: a set of logical propositions that explains the set of phenomenon in a testable fashion
Standards of Scientific Inquiry
-standard of objectivity
-Replication
-Operationalization
-standard of objectivity: the bias of researchers can't influence the results
-Replication: duplication of an experiment by another researcher
-Operationalization:making an abstract concept measurable
-
Descriptive Research
Definition
How is it used?
Definition: research design to obtain information about society by providing social facts

How is it used?
used to explain behaviors and develop theories
Explanatory Research
Definition:
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Definition: attempts to explain why things happen or don't happen. (deals with causation)

Independent variable- a variable that causes an effect.

Dependent variable-variable that's affect by the independent variable.
Evaluation Research
Definition
Definition: measures how well a program does in respect to its goal
Qualitative vs Quantitative

Definition

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Hawthorne Effect
Qualitative methods involve the gathering and reporting of nonnumerical data. (case studies)

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN- a scientific procedure used to determine cause-effect relationships in controlled situations.

Hawthorne Effect is the effect that occurs when researchers themselves contaminate a study and cause a change in the dependent variable
Quantitative methods involve gathering and reporting data based on numbers or amounts.
(surveys)
Definition
Culture
When does culture lag occur?
Culture: refers to a system of ideas and values almost everyone in the system shares.

culture lag occurs when technology and material culture changes faster than non-material culture
Definition
Ethnocentrism
Xenocentrism
Temporocentrism
-Ethnocentrism is the assumption that one’s own culture is superior to others

Xenocentrism-the opposite of ethnocentrism, is the belief that what is foreign is best.

Temporocentrism-is the belief that one’s own time is more important than the past or present
Definition
cultural relativism
Subcultures
Countercultures
Idiocultures
cultural relativism- the belief that cultures must be judged on their own terms rather than by the standards of another culture is known
(a behavior appropriate in one place may not be appropriate everywhere.)
Subculture-participate in the larger, dominant culture, but possess their own set of cultural elements.

Counter culture: adhere to sets of norms and values that contradict those of the larger culture.

idiocultures- are created through shared group interactions
SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESIS
SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESIS:
suggests that our perceptions of reality and consequent behaviors are significantly influenced by the grammatical forms, labels, and categories provided by our language.
Robin Williams theory on Values
Theory: conflict in values come from values centering around individual personalities and categorical conception
Social Norms
FOLKWAYS
MORES
Taboo
LAWS
social norms-are rules of conduct or social expectations specifying how people should or should not behave in various social situations
FOLKWAYS are learned customs or conventions that are passed down from one generation to the next; violation tends to be punished mildly, if at all.

MORES are considered more important than folkways

Taboo-Mores that prohibit something, that state “thou shalt not,”

LAWS are formal, standardized expressions of norms enacted by legislative bodies to regulate particular types of behaviors.
Erich Fromm “PATHOLOGY OF NORMALCY.”

deviance
Social control
Social norms are not beneficial to society

Deviance:violating norms beyond group acceptability

Social Control: applying sanctions to obtain social conformity
Five basic social institutions
family, religion, education, economic, and political.
Socialization
Socialization is the complex learning process through which new group members are created and are incorporated into group life.
Sociobiologists
Sociobiologists, who are biologists by training, believe that social behavior is determined by inborn genetic traits in much the same fashion that animals are influenced by their genes.
George Mead: Symbolic Interaction
View of "Self"
INTERACTION is the social process that occurs within and among individuals as a result of the internalization of meanings and the use of language.

Self:
People are not born with a sense of self; Mead stressed the importance of people interacting with others in the development of the SELF.
Charles Horton Cooley: The Looking-Glass Self
a. How we think our behavior appears to others;
b. How we think others judge our behavior;
c. How we feel about their judgments
Mead and Cooley difference between social and psychological difference of self
Mead and Cooley pointed out that the main difference between social and psychological theories of the self is that social theories assume that the individual is shaped first by society, whereas psychological theories emphasize individual development apart from social processes; the individual develops and then responds to society.
DRAMATURGICAL APPROACH.
(interaction and self)
DRAMATURGICAL APPROACH.
a. Whenever we interact, we prepare ourselves “backstage” and then present ourselves “on stage.”
b. A knowledge of the dramaturgical approach may enhance one’s interpersonal skills.
RESOCIALIZATION
RESOCIALIZATION usually follows a major break in a person’s customary life; one that requires that the person adopt an entirely new set of meanings.
MORTIFICATION OF SELF
MORTIFICATION OF SELF, a term used by Goffman, is the most dramatic type of resocialization and occurs in institutions such as the armed forces, prisons, and mental hospitals, which requires a total stripping of old selves, and acquiring a new sense of self.
Define Critical science
seeks to discover the fundamental processes of change that shapes the problem of society
CH1
Define paradigm and multi-paradigm
paradigm- the dominant view of how science is done at a certain time.

Multi-paradigm science- a science with many competing models and one dominant model. The models compete to replace the dominant model.
CH1
Define social psychology
the study of how individuals interact with other individuals and groups and how groups influence individuals.
(interaction and influence)
CH1
Define Social Work
the field in which the principles of social science are applied to actual social problems.
CH1
Define: social theory
What are the 5 major theories
are theories that seek to explain social phenomenon.

5 major theories:
Evolution theory
Structural function theory
Conflict theory
Exchange theory
Symbolic interaction theory
What do other theoretical perspectives such as humanistism, feminism, and sociobology reject and what do they advocae?
they reject the notion of non-involvement and total objectivity

advocate active involvement in social change.
Define: Altruistic suicide
-opposite of egotistical suicide
-result of being too strongly integrated into a social group
-kamikaze
Define: anomie
-the fundamental changes in social order destroys an individual's previously existing goals
-if not replaced with new goals a condition of normlessness can result.
Define: anomic suicide
-occurs under the condition of rapid social change and normlessness
Define: atomistic drift
-negative sources of social conflicts
Define: Chicago School
-an approach that emphasized the importance of interaction to the development of human behavior
Define: egoistic suicide
-occurs when individuals are insufficiently incorporated into a closely-knit group
-less purpose for existence
Define: functional alternatives
-other ways to achieve a goal in order to avoid dysfunctions
Define: social fact
- to exert external constraint on behavior
Define: Verstehen
Wertrational
Zweckrational
Verstehen: understanding human behavior subjectiely and objectively

Wertrational-rational actions in pursuit to remain faithful to a value

Zweckrational- Rational action in pursuit of a goal
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis:

What does it suggest?
-it suggest the use of different languages by different societies cause them to perceive the world differently. (different realities)
Define: cultural capital
-refers to cultural resources (specialized labor & access to technology) that are put to use by the elite class.
Define: cultural hegemony
-an excessive concentration of cultural power that leads to the influence of one culture throughout society.
(capitalism)
Define: idoculture
-values, beliefs, customs that are unique to a given group
Define: MacDonaldization
-a belief large scale, industrial industries have turned people into standardized consumers of cultural products.
Define: Socialization
-the process of learning how to interact in society by learning the rules and expectations of society
What is Mead view on role taking?
-role taking is the process of figuring out how others think and perceive us.

-children learn their role in a team environment
According to Goffman, an inconsistent dramaturgical approach will lead to?
-if we can't maintain our presentation, we'll respond to our failure with emotion and embarrassment or anger.
Define: ego and super-ego
Ego: a component of common sense and reason. It balances the id and the superego

Super-ego: the internalized set of ideas about what constitutes a good and bad behavior
what is kinesic communication?
-non-verbal communication
Explain :nature-nuture debate
-Nature: behavior is predetermined by your biology and genetics

-Nurture: behavior is caused by socialization
Define: object relations theory
- argues the social relationships children experience determines their adult personalities
Define: role taking
-assume the roles of other and seeing the world through another perspective.
Define: social construction of reality
our perception of what is real is determined by the subjective meaning we put on the experience
Define: social learning theory
-Identity is the result of modeling oneself to the response of reinforcement
Define:
Social Status
status set
master status
Definition: A socially defined position an individual occupies

Status set: the combination of all the statuses an individual occupies at a given time.

Master status: A particular status in one's status set that takes priority over the others. It's important in determining how you and others see yourself.
Define:
Social role/role set
Prescribed roles
Role Ambiguity
Role Strain
Role Conflict
Social role: a set of expectations and behaviors associated with the a particular social status.

Prescribed Roles: expectations associated with a given status that are based on what society suggests or dictates.

Role ambiguity: exists when the expectations associated with a particular social status is not clear.

Role strain: occurs when differing and incompatible roles are associated with the same status.

Role Conflict: exist when different expectations are associated with the same role
Zimbardo's prison experiment
demonstrates the power of social structures and roles that can overcome a person's personality.
Four characteristic sociologists are interested in by a social group.
1) They involve some type of interaction

2) Members have a sense of belonging

3) Members agree on values, goals

4) They have structure-a definable and recognizable arrangement of parts.
Why are social groups important?
(3 reasons)
Social groups provide us with social identity, a key to understanding social behavior, and link the self with larger society.
Primary Group:
Definition
Function(4)
Definition: a small, informal group of people who interact in a personal, direct, and intimate way.

Importance:
in shaping the personality, formulating self-concepts, developing a sense of personal worth, and in becoming an accepted member of society.
Secondary Group:
Definition
Function
Definition: a group in which the members interact impersonally, have few emotional ties, and come together for a specific and practical purpose.

Function:
permit people who don't know each other intimately to perform their jobs more effectively.
Difference between primary and secondary groups
1) Primary groups are person-oriented, whereas secondary groups tend to be goal oriented.
In-Group

Out Group
In-group: a social group to which people feel they belong and with which they share a consciousness of kind.

Out-group:a group to which people feel they do not belong; they do not share consciousness of kind, and they feel little identity to the group.
Characteristics of an In-group
(5)
1) group shares a common allegiance and identity
2)tends to be ethnocentric
3)stereotype members of the out-group
4)cohesion of in-group intensified by out-group threats
5)In-groups and out-groups can be as small as a marriage or as large as a nation
Reference Group
Negative reference group
Positive reference group
Function (2)
Reference group: they are groups we use to assess our own performance, even if we do not actually belong to them.
Negative reference group:
those we don't want to be identified with
Positive reference group:
groups we want to be accepted by
Function:
1) sources of current evaluation and as sources of aspiration and goal attainment.
2) helps us understand the condition of relative deprivation.
When does Relative deprivation occur?
exists when people feel deprived, not because of the objective conditions they face, but because they compare themselves to a reference group that has more advantages
What are the 6 consequences of varying the group size?
1) Size has a dramatic effect on member interactions. The smallest group possible is the DYAD, which consists of two people. With the addition of a third person, the dyad becomes a TRIAD and the interactions change dramatically.

2)As the group size increases, so does the division of labor. Activities tend to become specialized.

3) As the size of a group increases, its structure becomes more rigid and formal. Small groups operate informally whereas large groups operate more formally.

4) As the size of a group increases, so does the need for a more formal type of leadership. In small groups, decisions may be made informally, in a spirit of mutual sharing and agreement, with no designated leader. In large groups, the leadership becomes more formal, and decision-making is more constraining.
5)As the size of a group increases, communication patterns change. Leaders tend to dominate discussions in large groups; in small groups, more group members participate.

6)As size increases, cohesion decreases. Informal means develop to provide membership stability and conformity, such as applying fines, not allowing participation, or assigning specific tasks. These informal means become less effective as group size increases. Social scientists have found that cohesiveness within groups generally improves group performance.
According to Bales, what are the two types of leaders in small groups?
1) Instrumental leader who organize groups around goals.

2) Expressive leaders who resolve conflicts and create group harmony and social cohesion.
Social Network:
Definition
Weak vs. Strong
Definition:
linkage of relationships within various social groups

Weak:
relationship with someone with little in common and occasional contact.

Strong: relationship that involves strong emotional investments
Organization characteristic
1)An organization have its own structure, norms, and roles different from the sum of the people.

2)structure become stable over time.

3) Organizations establish bureaucracies to help meet their goals.
Formal organization
Definition
Function
deliberately constructed groups and structural arrangements organized to achieve a specific goal.

Function: makes it possible for highly complex industrialized societies to meet their most fundamental needs and pursue collective aspirations.
Formalization
the process through which the norms, roles, and procedures of a group are established to make precise and valid.
Bureaucracy
Definition
a formal, hierarchical structure that directs and coordinates the efforts of the people involved in various tasks of an organization.
Weber's characteristics of a bureaucracy?
(5)
1) Division of labor: tasks and groups are divided into offices or bureaus, each having defined responsibilities.

2) Hierarchy of authority: each officer is accountable to the higher ranked officer and their subordinates

3) Public office: The office and records separate from the private lives of the employees

4) Merit Selection: Personnel chosen on the basis of capabilities rather than connections

5) Career patterns: Employees can work themselves up by performing adequately at the jobs.

6)Objective rule: The operation of the organization is governed by a consistent set of rules. All bureaucracies diverge from the ideal in some (or many) respects
Dysfunction bureaucracy
Merton
Hiring practices
Problem solving
1) Merton's: he believed people in bureaucracies often develop TRAINED INCAPACITY in which rules are obeyed for their own sake not for a means to an end.

2) hiring practices: hire based on formal requirements rather than the ability to perform the tasks involved in the job.

3)Actual problems may not fit into the company design resulting in "runaround"

4)Not the best in every situations
Must Bureaucracies be dehumanizing? The Japan Case

Difference between Japan and U.S. companies
Difference:
1)Japan has small numbers of job classifications, team-based work organization, and consensual relations between labor and management.

2)in Japanese organizations is generally based on teams that are responsible for planning and carrying out production tasks. The teams have team leaders, but unlike U.S. foremen, they do not supervise workers.
3)as training workers in multiple tasks; having workers actively participate in company suggestion programs; having workers’ input into the design of their jobs and the operation of the organization, and having the concept that Japanese workers become “married” to the organization with guaranteed life-time employment all contribute to morale and job security.
Voluntary Association
Definition
organizations that people join because they share their goals and values and voluntarily choose to support them.