Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
40 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
What is Empirical Research?
|
Research based on real world information that is collected (data)
|
|
|
A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables is a _______.
|
Hypotheses
|
|
|
A property of people or objects that takes on two or more values:
|
Variable
|
|
|
(Types of Variables)
The variable to be explained (the “effect”): |
Dependent
|
|
|
(Types of Variables)
The variable expected to account for (i.e., be the “cause” of) the dependent variable. |
Independent
|
|
|
Most hypotheses are based on a _______.
|
Theory
|
|
|
A ______ is an explanation of the relationship between two or more variables.
|
Theory
|
|
|
Cause and effect relationships between variables are not easy to infer in the social sciences. Causal relationships must meet three criteria:
|
-The cause has to precede the effect in time
-There has to be an empirical relationship between the cause and effect -This relationship cannot be explained by other relevant factors (i.e., it is observed even after controlling for the effects of other relevant factors) |
|
|
Variables are measured in four ways
|
Nominal
Ordinal Interval Ratio |
|
|
Numbers or other symbols are assigned to a set of categories for the purpose of naming, labeling, or classifying the observations:
(Examples: Political Party,Religion Race) |
Nominal Level of Measurement
|
|
|
Nominal variables that can be ranked from low to high:
(Example: Social Class [Upper Class, Middle Class, Working Class, Lower Class]). |
Ordinal Level of Measurement
|
|
|
Variables where measurements for all cases are expressed in regular intervals:
(Examples: IQ, SAT) |
Interval level
|
|
|
Variables with a natural zero point, with intervals that are exactly equal to each other, are called ratio variables:
(Ex: age, income) |
Ratio level
|
|
|
__________ is a set of tools and techniques used for organizing, describing, and interpreting data.
|
Statistics
|
|
|
A relative frequency obtained by dividing the frequency in each category by the total number of cases (N):
|
Proportion (P)
P=f/n |
|
|
A relative frequency obtained by multiplying the Proportion by 100:
|
Percentage (%)
(%)=P (100) |
|
|
A distribution showing the frequency at or below each) of the variable:
|
Cumulative frequency distribution
|
|
|
A distribution showing the percentage at or below each category (class interval or score) of the variable:
|
Cumulative percentage distribution
|
|
|
A graph showing the differences in frequencies or percentages among categories of a nominal or an ordinal variable. The categories are displayed as segments of a circle whose pieces add up to 100 % of the total frequencies:
|
Pie chart
|
|
|
A graph showing the differences in frequencies or percentages among categories of a nominal or an ordinal variable (i.e., variables that are categorical). The categories are displayed as rectangles of equal width with their height proportional to the frequency or percentage of the category:
|
Bar graph
|
|
|
A graph showing the differences in frequencies or percentages among categories of an interval-ratio variable. The categories are displayed as contiguous bars, with width proportional to the width of the category and height proportional to the frequency or percentage of that category:
|
Histogram
|
|
|
________ statistics refers to a collection of statistical techniques used to describe data about a population or sample.
|
Descriptive
|
|
|
_________ statistics refers a collection of statistical techniques used to generalize about a population based on a sample.
|
Inferential
|
|
|
(Measures of Central Tendency)
An ________ is a single score that best represents a set of scores. It represents the central tendency of a set of scores. |
AVERAGE
|
|
|
(Measures of Central Tendency)
What are the three types of averages? |
Mean – a “typical” score
Median – middle score Mode – most common score |
|
|
The _____ of a set of numbers is the average. It is calculated by finding the sum of all the values and dividing by the number of values.
|
Mean
|
|
|
A _____ ______ represents the difference between a score and its mean.
|
deviation score
x minus x (with a line over it) |
|
|
The mean is like the fulcrum on a balanced seesaw.
What does it balance? |
The Deviation Scores
(the sum of deviations around the mean (deviation scores) equals zero). |
|
|
The ______ of a series of numbers is the number that appears in the middle of the list when arranged from smallest to largest. The point/score at which 50% of remaining scores fall above and 50% fall below.
|
Median
[For a list with an odd number of members, the way to find the middle number is to take the number of members and add one. Then divide that value by two. In our case, there are 9 numbers in the series. 9+1 = 10 and half of 10 is 5. The fifth number in the series is the median or 14.] |
|
|
(Skewing the Mean)
Use simple formula, Skewness = ______ minus ______. |
Mean -Median
|
|
|
hghhg
|
ghghgh
|
|
|
The most frequently occurring score:
|
Mode:
(NO formula. List all values in the distribution. Tally the number of times each value occurs. The value occurring the most is the mode). |
|
|
Use the Mode....
|
when the data are nominal
e.g., political party, race, gender |
|
|
Use the Median....
|
when you have a lot of outliers or extreme scores (if there are just a few outliers in a big data set, just omit the outliers) and the data is not nominal
(Ex: mean income gets skewed by the many rich people) |
|
|
Use the Mean...
|
when you have data that does not include lots of outliers or extreme scores and are not nominal
|
|
|
Variability is also called _____ or ______.
|
(aka Spread, Dispersion)
|
|
|
(Computing the Range)
________ Range (the range) measures the distance between the highest and lowest data scores) |
Exclusive
R = h – l |
|
|
(Computing the Range)
______ Range includes the last data point (used occasionally) |
Inclusive
R = h – l + 1 |
|
|
______ ________ _______= the average distance from the mean.
|
Mean Absolute Deviation
The sum of the absolute values of all the deviation scores. |
|
|
______ = s squared
If the variance is 100, what is the standard deviation? |
variance
*10, because s = the square root of the variance |
