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209 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of others
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social psychology
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ABC's
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affect, behavior, cognition
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we look to others to determine what we really are like
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looking glass self
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people believe that others focus on them more than others really do
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spotlight effect
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a projection of new knowledge into the past accompanied by a denial that the outcome information has influenced judgment
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hindsight bias
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made up of the conscious system and the automatic system
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the duplex mind
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performs complex operations
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the conscious system
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outside of consciousness, performs simple operations
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the automatic system
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measure of implicit self esteem, represents the idea that an individual prefers the letters belonging to their own name and will select these above other letters in choice tasks
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name-letter effect
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ex. feeling a sense of ownership over where you sit in class every day
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mere ownership
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the unconscious tendency to prefer things that resemble the self
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implicit egotism
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how we interpret, remember, and use information about the social world
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social cognition
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when a person slowly and deliberately weighs all available information before coming to a decision
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motivated tacticians
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rather than using up mental resources with careful deliberation, a person will use heuristics and mental shortcuts to conserve cognitive resources
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cognitive miser
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a mental framework centering around a specific theme that helps people to organize social information (we have these for people, events, and roles)
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schemas
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simple rules for making decisions in a rapid manner, mental shortcuts that allow people to conserve their mental resources
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heuristics
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a shortcut in which people judge things by how closely they resemble a prototype or a generic example; people do not process how statistically likely the match is
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representative heuristic
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An error that occurs when the conditional probability of some hypothesis H given some evidence E is assessed without taking sufficient account of the "base rate" or "prior probability" of E.
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base-rate fallacy
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possible errors of representative heuristic
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base-rate fallacy, insensitivity to size of sample, insensitivity to prior outcomes, "gambler's fallacy" (insensitivity to chance)
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a shortcut in which people judge the likelihood of something happening by how easily it is recalled, items that are more easily recalled are assumed to occur more often
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availability heuristic
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a shortcut in which people make an estimate by choosing a starting point and then compensating for the perceived difference between the starting point and the most likely answer
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anchoring and adjustment
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people can be affected by the ordering in which options occur
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order effect
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an example of an order effect
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recency effect
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people tend to be influenced by the way that the question is posed
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framing effect
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people avoid risk when trying to gain, but are risk-seeking when trying to avoid a sure loss, people don't consider statistics, but go with "gut instinct" and emotion, they do this because they are being cognitive misers
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"losses-loom-larger" effect
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the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments
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overconfidence effect
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people have an essential lack of understanding of how cognition works an why they made the decisions that they did, we aren't aware of factors that go into a decision, instead, we think about what must have mattered, given the final decision we reached
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poverty of introspection
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an inclination to see events that have occurred as more predictable than they in fact were before they took place
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hindsight bias
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poverty of introspection errors
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halo effect, importance of inconsistent information, automatic vigilance (face in the crowd effect)
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people tend to use their knowledge of a single characteristic to form a global impression of someone
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halo effect
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we tend to assume that we have such information for a reason
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importance of inconsistent information
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what is known as face in the crowd effect
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automatic vigilance
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the tendency to imagine other outcomes in a situation than the ones that actually occurred, to think about "might-have-beens"
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counterfactual thinking
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alternative pasts that are better than reality
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upwards counterfactuals
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alternative pasts that are worse than reality
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downwards counterfactuals
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increase availability of information in our memory or consciousness resulting from subconscious exposure to stimuli or events
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priming
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a subtle suggestion of a category of thinking that can have a huge effect on behavior
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prime
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the more you try not to think about something, the more you will end up thinking about it
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ironic processes
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an evaluation about some part of the social world
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attitude
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four ways in which we learn attitudes
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classical conditioning, subliminal conditioning, modeling, social comparison
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classical conditioning that occurs through exposure to stimuli that are below individuals' thresholds of conscious awareness
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subliminal conditioning
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we compare ourselves to others to determine whether our view of social reality is or is not correct
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social comparison
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the link between attitude and behavior is influenced by
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aspects of the situation, aspects of the attitude, past attitudes
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what if attitudes and behavior don't match?
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change behavior, justify behavior, change attitude
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what causes us to change our attitudes?
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cognitive dissonance
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an unpleasant internal state when individuals notice inconsistency between two or more of their attitudes or between their attitudes and behaviors
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cognitive dissonance
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the occurrence of cognitive dissonance depends on
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choosing to exhibit certain behaviors, and effort justification
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what are the two routes to persuasion?
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the central route and the peripheral route
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attention change via a systematic processing of information
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central route
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attitude change in response to persuasion cues such as expertise or status of would-be persuaders
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peripheral route
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we give to those who have given to us
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reciprocity
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we want to appear consistent, at least publicly
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commitment and consistency
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the tendency to see an action as more appropriate when others do it
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social proof
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we are more favorable to people we like (even if it's just on the surface)
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liking
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we usually conform to who?
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authority
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opportunities seem more valuable to us when they are limited
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scarcity
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what are the six rules of persuasion?
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reciprocity, commitment and consistency, social proof, liking, authority, scarcity
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the process by which we seek to identify the causes of others' behavior and to understand their stable traits and dispositions
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attributions
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attributions involve decisions regarding the extent to which behaviors are due to __________ and __________ .
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situational constraints and internal traits
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the belief that we can learn about internal traits by watching external behaviors, we make decisions based on how the behavior fits expectations
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correspondent inference
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attributions are based on:
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consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus
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the situation is attributed to personality if there is:
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high consistency, low distinctiveness, and low consensus
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the individual would always act the same way
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high consistency
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the individual would make the same choice for other events too
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low distinctiveness
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other people would not act in the same way in this situation
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low consensus
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what is the strongest error of attribution that we make?
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fundamental error of attribution
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people have a strong tendency to overestimate the importance of internal traits and underestimate the importance of the situation
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fundamental attribution error
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why do we make the fundamental attribution error?
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actor-observer bias, self-serving bias
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when we observe others, we explain their behaviors as personality; for ourselves, we are more aware of situational constraints
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actor-observer bias
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we tend to explain our positive behaviors as due to our sparkling personality, and our negative behaviors as situationally driven
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self-serving bias
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beliefs about attributes thought to be characteristic of members of a particular group
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stereotype
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new yorkers are always rude and in a hurry
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example of a stereotype
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a negative attitude or affective response toward a certain group and its members
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prejudice
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dislike for members of Al Qaeda
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example of prejudice
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unfair treatment of members of a particular group based on their membership in the group
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discrimination
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denying someone a job because of their race or gender
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example of discrimination
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school segregation, voting rights, etc.
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examples of traditional discrimination
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informal hiring processes, social interactions
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modern discrimination
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the more resources available, the less prejudice and vice e versa
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realistic group conflict theory
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the tendency to perceive members of our own group as more heterogeneous and other groups as more homogeneous
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emphasizing categories through in-group differentiation
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people are more comfortable with members of their own group
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intergroup anxiety
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just separating people into groups leads to in-group bias, people seek to enhance their own self-esteem by favoring in-groups over out-groups, if no threat to self-esteem, tolerance of other groups, if threat to self-esteem, prejudice toward other groups
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social identity theory
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self-esteem is based on
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personal identity and social identity
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a false impression that two variables are related, can lead people to overestimate the likelihood that racial minorities will commit crimes, when we already have an expectation, this will exaggerate the effect of this
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illusory correlation
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people look for evidence to confirm hypotheses, not to disprove them
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confirmation bias
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an expectation that causes the behavior to occur to match the expectation, acting on a belief in a way that tends to support the original belief, for example, we act towards members of certain groups in ways that encourage the very behavior we expect of them
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self-fulfilling prophecies
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what is the effect of prejudice on out-groups?
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self-esteem is higher
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give a few examples of why we use stereotypes.
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we are cognitive misers, realistic group conflict theory, intergroup anxiety, social identity theory, illusory correlation
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after being exposed to repeated negative images or ability, the group internalizes anxiety about performance, this anxiety interferes with performance
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stereotype threat
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out-group members focus on other aspects of identity that don't involve negative stereotypes
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disidentification hypothesis
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people are more comfortable with members of their own group
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intergroup anxiety
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just separating people into groups leads to in-group bias, people seek to enhance their own self-esteem by favoring in-groups over out-groups, if no threat to self-esteem, tolerance of other groups, if threat to self-esteem, prejudice toward other groups
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social identity theory
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self-esteem is based on
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personal identity and social identity
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a false impression that two variables are related, can lead people to overestimate the likelihood that racial minorities will commit crimes, when we already have an expectation, this will exaggerate the effect of this
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illusory correlation
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people look for evidence to confirm hypotheses, not to disprove them
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confirmation bias
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an expectation that causes the behavior to occur to match the expectation, acting on a belief in a way that tends to support the original belief, for example, we act towards members of certain groups in ways that encourage the very behavior we expect of them
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self-fulfilling prophecies
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what is the effect of prejudice on out-groups?
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self-esteem is higher
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give a few examples of why we use stereotypes.
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we are cognitive misers, realistic group conflict theory, intergroup anxiety, social identity theory, illusory correlation
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after being exposed to repeated negative images or ability, the group internalizes anxiety about performance, this anxiety interferes with performance
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stereotype threat
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out-group members focus on other aspects of identity that don't involve negative stereotypes
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disidentification hypothesis
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contact between majority and minority group members will reduce prejudice
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contact hypothesis
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in this study, emergencies were created to require cooperation between groups
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robber's cave study
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after a group member engages in atypical behavior, rather than reject the stereotype, the individual expects a return to "normal" stereotypical behavior
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compensatory processes
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when the group stereotype is maintained by categorizing individuals as non-typical, we are less likely to change stereotypes in response to counter-stereotypic people when we can do this easily
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subtyping
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subtyping occurs if:
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the individual is atypical, other information suggests possibility, deviation from stereotype is extreme (example: lesbian in cappabianca's)
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what are the three parts to the self?
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the individual self, the relational self, and the executive self
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refers to thinking about the self and who you are
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the individual self
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when people attribute their successes to internal or personal factors but attribute their failures to situational factors beyond their control
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self-serving biases
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the set of beliefs that we have about ourselves and about what we are like, influences how we process and recall information about the self and others
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self-concept
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the different selves or roles that a person plays, these selves prescribe particular types of behaviors to certain social situations
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possible selves
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the person you are right now
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actual self
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the self it is your goal to be
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the ideal self
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the self it is your duty to be
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the ought self
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the self you fear becoming
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the feared self
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a mismatch between our actual self and self-guides
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discrepancy
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motives for self-knowledge
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appraisal, consistency, self-enhancement
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we tend to view the world in a slightly more positive light than we should
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positive illusions
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we unconsciously view ability as either what or what?
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changeable or unchangeable
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who believes that we are able to increase incrementally the amount of ability that we have?
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incremental theorists
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who believes that we are born with a fixed amount of ability that will not ever change?
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entity theorists
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the ability to look at what you are doing and interpret what you are like based on your actions
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self-awareness
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refers to thinking about self in relation to other people
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relational self
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we view ourselves through the eyes of others and incorporate their perceptions of us into our self-concept, to gain self-knowledge
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looking glass self, reflected appraisal
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if a close other excels in an unimportant activity people __________; if a close other excels in a personally relevant activity, then people feel __________. They:
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BIRG, envy, distance themselves from the person, decrease the importance of the activity, sabotage
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a strategy by which people convey an impression of what they are like to others
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self-presentation
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two motives for self-presentation
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to construct an image of self, to construct a positive self
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how positively one views oneself
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self-esteem
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what is the bridge between the individual self and the relational self?
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self-esteem
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to what theory do the following points belong: self esteem develops through interactions with others, self-esteem reflects acceptance by one's peers, people like others with high self-esteem
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sociometer theory of self-esteem
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the degree to which outcomes are viewed as internally controlled or externally controlled
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locus of control
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the ability of the self to monitor, control, and change thoughts, feelings, and impulses
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self-regulation
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self-regulation operates on a feedback loop
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control theory
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self-regulation operates like a muscle, you only have so much strength
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resource model
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a moving force that energizes behavior
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motivation
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approach versus avoidance, predicts effort on task / emotions
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direction of motivation
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predicts effort
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strength of motivation
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the desire to engage in an activity because of enjoyment or interest, not external rewards, the need to show competence, achievement, growth, subtle
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intrinsic motivation
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the desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards, not enjoyment or interest, the need to gain some reward, obvious
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extrinsic motivation
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providing compelling external reasons for a behavior causes people to underestimate the importance of intrinsic factors
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overjustification
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you can reduce overjustification by making rewards __________ instead of __________
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performance contingent, task contingent
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people are strongly motivated to receive a positive evaluation or to be judged positively by others
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evaluation apprehension
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people perform better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks with an audience
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social facilitation
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if arousal is low...
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performance is low
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if arousal is high...
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performance is low
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what is the term for when people perform better at home than away?
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home field advantage
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when others are working on the same task, and individual evaluation is not likely, each person exerts less effort on the task
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social loafing
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how to reduce social loafing?
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increase salience of evaluation, increase intrinsic motivation
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why does it seem reasonable that groups would be better at making decisions than individuals?
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pooling of information, division of labor
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an excessive tendency to seek agreement among group members, often leading to sub-optimal decision making, often after the fact, people wonder how the group could have come to that decision
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group-think
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what does group-think lead to?
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poor information search, incomplete examination of risks, poor surveying of alternatives, inability to form contingency plans
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group-think occurs when:
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the group is highly cohesive, a powerful leader rewards apparent cohesiveness, there are no mechanisms for evaluating alternatives
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symptoms of group think:
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illusion of invulnerability, illusion of unanimity, over simplification
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the group decision must be correct, a belief in the moral correctness of the group
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illusion of invulnerability
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group gives the appearance of conformity, self-censorship to fit into the group, pressure from other group members to conform
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illusion of unanimity
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people have a strong motivation to be close to others and to look for relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions with other people
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need to belong
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the most important factor in attraction
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proximity
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the second most important factor in attraction
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similarity
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the third most important factor in attraction
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social exchange theory
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we want to be with someone who will provide some social or material benefit to us
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social exchange theory
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rules of relationships
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need to belong, proximity, similarity, social exchange theory
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people tend to match up with other people who are roughly similar in attractiveness
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matching phenomenon
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we assume that people who are beautiful externally also have pleasing personalities
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attractiveness increases liking / halo effect
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a change in behavior or belief as a result of real or imagined social norms, refers o both acting as if you accept the group, and actually accepting the group attitudes
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conformity
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factors that predict conformity
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cohesiveness, group size, norms for behavior
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the extermination, entirely or in part, of an abstractly defined group of people, the group may be defined by racial, ethnic, national, religious, cultural, linguistic, political, economic, sexual, or other identities
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genocide
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why does genocide happen?
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out-group biases, resource availability, political or economic crisis, loss of control, aggression makes up for threat to collective self
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which groups are targeted for genocide?
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high group status, competition
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a motive to help others because of some benefit to the self
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egoistic motives
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a motive to help others, usually without regard for one's own self-interest
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altruistic motives
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we want to be with someone who will provide some social or material benefit to us, we help others in order to maximize rewards and minimize costs
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social exchange
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the expectation that the help being offered will be returned in some way
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reciprocity norm
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the expectation that people will help others who are dependent upon them
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social responsibility norm
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the more people present, the less likely helping is to occur
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diffusion of responsibility / bystander effect
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an ability to feel emotions as others experience them; putting oneself in others' place, is the key
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empathy
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1st step to helping
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Does the individual notice the situation
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2nd step to helping
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does the individual interpret the situation as an emergency?
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does the individual interpret the situation as an emergency?
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it depends on the ambiguity of the situation
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people think that they are very clear in translating their thoughts and emotions to others
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illusion of transparency
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the tendency to rely on bystanders to know how to behave
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pluralistic ignorance
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3rd step to helping
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does the individual assume responsibility to act?
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4th step to helping
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does the individual have the knowledge, training, or skills to help?
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5th step to helping
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does the individual decide to help?
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why might an individual not interpret a situation as an emergency?
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illusion of transparency, spotlight effect, pluralistic ignorance
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behaviors and personality traits that provide an advantage will flourish; behaviors and traits that are not adaptive will die out
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natural selection
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males prefer...
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multiple partners, young, attractive, opportunity to impregnate
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females prefer...
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fewer partners, older, stable with resources, attractive, symmetrical
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an emotional response to someone else wanting someone that you have, and the resulting fear of loss, involves a blow to self-esteem
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jealousy
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what are men most threatened by?
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sexual infidelity
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what are women most threatened by?
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emotional infidelity
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in what percentage of relationships do extramarital affairs occur?
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20-50%
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when a person attempts to have an emotional and or sexual relationship with someone who is already in a relationship
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mate poaching
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the study of strength and virtues that enable people to thrive
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positive psychology
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categories of positive psychology
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the pleasant life, the good life, the meaningful life
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people tend to return to their baseline level of happiness
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hedonic adaptation / treadmill
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within one event, people look at:
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peak moment of pleasure, ending emotional experience, duration neglect
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50% of happiness is __________
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genetic set point
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10% of happiness is __________
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circumstances
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40% of happiness is __________
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intentional activity
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people are not very good at judging how they will feel about a particular outcome
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affective forecasting
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people use cognitive restructuring to subjectively optimize the outcomes that occur, thus making potentially negative outcomes seem less negative
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cognitive restructuring
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positive emotions broaden what individuals feel like doing, broadening mindset builds personal resources
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broaden and build theory of positive emotion
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how can you be happier?
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achieve goals, practice acts of kindness, count your blessings
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a positive emotional state that is typically subjectively defined and identified by each person
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happiness
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positive and negative emotions are genetically based up to __________ and __________, respectively, which suggests that __________ and __________ are environmentally influenced, respectively
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40%-50%, 50%-60%
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three general theories of happiness:
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1) need/goal satisfaction
2) process/activity 3) genetic/personality predisposition |
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people become happy because their goals have been met
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need/goal satisfaction
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engaging in certain life activities to generate happiness in a person's life
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process/activity
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the engagement in interesting activities that match or challenge task-related skills
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flow
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recipe for flow
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1) identify your highest strength
2) align your life to use these strength as much as possible |
