Social Psych

Front 1

what is social influence?

Back 1

Refers to the many ways that people affect each other. Involves changes in attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behavior that result from the comments, actions, or even the mere presence of others.

Front 2

3 types of social influence?

Back 2

conformity, compliance, obedience

Front 3

conformity

Back 3

changing one’s behavior or beliefs in response to some real (or imagined)
Can be implicit (throwing away jeans that do not fit the latest fashion), or explicit (encouraging members of a peer group to smoke cigarettes)

Front 4

compliance

Back 4

responding favorably to an explicit request by another person. Attempts often come from people who have some power over you.

Front 5

obedience

Back 5

In an unequal power relationship, submitting to the demands of the more powerful person.

Front 6

automatic mimicry

Back 6

mindless imitation of others

Front 7

ideometer action

Back 7

merely thinking about behavior makes its actual performance more likely.

Front 8

what are the 2 reasons for mimicking others?

Back 8

1. ideometer action
2. in order to prepare for interaction with others (makes smooth interaction more likely)

Front 9

Results for the study about priming for "elder people"

Back 9

people primed with "elder people" walked slower on their way to the elevator. People with a more positive attitude toward the elderly walked slower than those with a negative view.

Front 10

What did Muzafer Sherif attempt to study?

Back 10

how groups influence the behavior of individuals by shaping how realty is perceived.
Informational Social influence

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informational social influence

Back 11

the influence of other people that results from taking their comments or actions as a source of information about what is correct, proper, or effective.

Front 12

What procedure did Sherif's study use?

Back 12

Autokinetic Illusion - if one is looking at a stationary point of light in a completely darkened environment, that point of light seems to move.

Front 13

Sherif's study had an important aspect, what was it?

Back 13

it included ambiguity

Front 14

the ____ the influence, the ____ certain we are of the answer

Back 14

the greater the influence, the less certain we are of the answer.

Front 15

What were Jacobs and Campbell studying? (conformity)

Back 15

the transmission of false beliefs using the autokinetic illusion effect.

Front 16

What were the results of Jacobs and Campbell's study?

Back 16

The inflated illusion persisted for 5 generations of participants.

Front 17

What was the procedure of the Jacobs and Campbell's study?

Back 17

they had a confederate give an inflated
estimate of how for the light moved. The confederate then left the experiment and was replaced by another real participant, who was in turn replaced by a still newer member.

Front 18

Mimicry and the Chameleon effect (Chartrand and Bargh) - procedure

Back 18

Participants in pairs were asked to describe various photographs from popular magazines. In fact, one of them was a confederate, who would either frequently rub his face or continuously shake his foot. Participants were videotaped.

Front 19

Werther Effect (David Phillips)

Back 19

iscovered that suicides, as well as fatal car accidents and private airplane crashes (which sometimes disguise suicide) increase after highly publicized suicide.

Front 20

Results of Sherif's study?

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We want to be right, and opinions of other people are a useful source of information we can draw upon to “get it right”. People would conform to one another.

Front 21

What was Solomon Asch's experiment?

Back 21

The line experiment to study the impact of normative social influence.

Front 22

Normative social influence

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the influence of other people that comes from the desire to avoid their disapproval, harsh judgements, and other social sanctions.

Front 23

Results of Asch's experiment

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75% of the participants conformed to the erroneous majority at least once. Even if the answer was clearly wrong.

Front 24

What are the 9 factors that affect conformity pressure?

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1. group size
2. group unanimity
3. cohesion
4. expertise and status
5. anonymity vs. public response
6. difficulty or ambiguity of the task
7. no prior commitment
8. culture
9. gender

Front 25

explain the factor of group size on conformity

Back 25

Conformity increases as the size of the group increases, but only to a certain point (after a group size of 3 or 4, the amount of conformity levels off)

Front 26

explain the factor of group unanimity on conformity

Back 26

If just one other person within the group also deviates from the group judgment, you are more likely to stick to your judgment (presence of an ally).
This other person who breaks the group’s unanimity does not need to share your opinion; he just needs to have a different opinion than the group.

Front 27

explain the factor of cohesion on conformity

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A minority opinion from someone outside the groups we identify with (e.g. other college or religion) sways us less than the same minority opinion from someone within our group.

Front 28

explain the factor of expertise and status on conformity

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Informational social influence: experts are more likely assumed to be right, and so their opinions are taken more seriously.

Normative social influence: the disapproval of high-status individuals can hurt more than the disapproval of people one cares less about.

Front 29

explain the factor of anonymity vs. public response on conformity

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Many experiments show that conformity levels are much higher when participants have to respond in front of others rather than writing their answers privately.

Front 30

explain the factor of the difficulty or ambiguity of the task on conformity

Back 30

When the judgment at hand is unambiguous and easy to make (such as in Asch’s experiments), informational social influence is virtually eliminated.
When the “right” thing to do is unclear (such as in Sherif’s studies), we are particularly inclined to rely on others for guidance.

Front 31

explain the factor of no prior commitment in conformity using Asch's study

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If the real participant in Asch’s studies had given his judgment before hearing that everyone else disagreed, and the experimenter then offered the opportunity to reconsider, almost none of the real participants actually changed their minds. Once having made a public commitment, they stick to it.

Front 32

explain the factor of culture in conformity

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High levels of conformity in all cultures. In collectivist societies the conformity levels are even higher than in individualist ones. People from interdependent cultures consider the opinions of others as more telling (informational social influence) and the high regard of others as more important (normative social influence).

Front 33

explain the factor of gender in conformity

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women are socialized to nurture relationships more than men are -> they are more subject to social influence. But: their greater comfort with relationships gives them a more solid foundation from which they can resist social influence.

Women tend to conform more about stereotypic “male” issues or in “male” domains, such as geography or the periodic table, etc.
Men tend to conform more about “female” issues or in “female” domains, such as how to make a good dessert or how to raise a child.

Front 34

What did Stanley Milgrim want to study in his experiment?

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Milgram wanted to study obedience among Germans. ⇒ Milgram wanted to investigate the power of group
pressure, if the behavior in question would have sever
consequences.

Front 35

The influence of minority opinion on the majority

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majority opinion doesn't always prevail. When a minority consistently states its divergent opinion, people might consider the stimulus more carefully. Influence fewer people but do so often on a deeper level.

Front 36

opposing forces for the Milgrim participants

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Continuing the experiment (felt obliged to finish as they had been payed for the experiment; wanted to help the advancement of science etc.) vs. stopping the experiment

Front 37

What 2 factors did Milgrim manipulate in his experiment?

Back 37

Tuning in the learner and tuning out the experimenter

Front 38

explain the results of Milgrim's "tuning in the learner" factor

Back 38

As the learner became more and more present and „real“, it became more and more difficult for the teachers to deliver the shocks, and obedience rates diminished. The more removed we are from others, the easier it is to hurt them.

Front 39

explain the factor of no prior commitment in conformity using Asch's study

Back 39

If the real participant in Asch’s studies had given his judgment before hearing that everyone else disagreed, and the experimenter then offered the opportunity to reconsider, almost none of the real participants actually changed their minds. Once having made a public commitment, they stick to it.

Front 40

explain the results of Milgrim's "tuning out the experimenter" factor

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As the experimenter became less of a force of authority in the participants’ minds, it became easier for the participant to defy the experimenter, and so the rate of obedience declined. This was stronger that the "tuning in the learner" effect.

Front 41

explain the factor of culture in conformity

Back 41

High levels of conformity in all cultures. In collectivist societies the conformity levels are even higher than in individualist ones. People from interdependent cultures consider the opinions of others as more telling (informational social influence) and the high regard of others as more important (normative social influence).

Front 42

Exceptionalist Thesis

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horrible crimes are only committed by exceptionally sadistic, desperate or evil people.

Front 43

explain the factor of gender in conformity

Back 43

women are socialized to nurture relationships more than men are -> they are more subject to social influence. But: their greater comfort with relationships gives them a more solid foundation from which they can resist social influence.

Women tend to conform more about stereotypic “male” issues or in “male” domains, such as geography or the periodic table, etc.
Men tend to conform more about “female” issues or in “female” domains, such as how to make a good dessert or how to raise a child.

Front 44

What did Stanley Milgrim want to study in his experiment?

Back 44

Milgram wanted to study obedience among Germans. ⇒ Milgram wanted to investigate the power of group
pressure, if the behavior in question would have sever
consequences.

Front 45

The influence of minority opinion on the majority

Back 45

majority opinion doesn't always prevail. When a minority consistently states its divergent opinion, people might consider the stimulus more carefully. Influence fewer people but do so often on a deeper level.

Front 46

opposing forces for the Milgrim participants

Back 46

Continuing the experiment (felt obliged to finish as they had been payed for the experiment; wanted to help the advancement of science etc.) vs. stopping the experiment

Front 47

What 2 factors did Milgrim manipulate in his experiment?

Back 47

Tuning in the learner and tuning out the experimenter

Front 48

explain the results of Milgrim's "tuning in the learner" factor

Back 48

As the learner became more and more present and „real“, it became more and more difficult for the teachers to deliver the shocks, and obedience rates diminished. The more removed we are from others, the easier it is to hurt them.

Front 49

explain the results of Milgrim's "tuning out the experimenter" factor

Back 49

As the experimenter became less of a force of authority in the participants’ minds, it became easier for the participant to defy the experimenter, and so the rate of obedience declined. This was stronger that the "tuning in the learner" effect.

Front 50

Normalist thesis

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the capacity for such destructive obedience lies in all of us

Front 51

ineffective disobedience

Back 51

Participants in the Milgram study did not mindlessly obey. Many wanted to stop but thought they could not.

Front 52

3 reasons why the participants obey the experimenters

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1. Participants were confused, did not know how to act -> people are unlikely to act decisively when they do not have a solid grasp of the events. 2. Experimenter took responsibility for whatever might happen to the “learner” (decreased stress of the participant). 3. The participants delivered the shocks “Step-by-step” (did not start with the maximum level)

Front 53

what are the 2 approaches of compliance?

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1. Reason-Based Approaches, 2. emotion-based approaches

Front 54

Examples of reason based compliance

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norm of reciprocity, foot-in-door, door-in-face (reciprocal concession), that's-not-all

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Norm of reciprocity

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a norm dictating that people should provide benefits to those who benefit them.

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Normalist thesis

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the capacity for such destructive obedience lies in all of us

Front 57

Door-in-face technique (reciprocal concession)

Back 57

asking someone for a very large demand that he/she will certainly refuse and then following it up with one for a more modest favor.

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ineffective disobedience

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Participants in the Milgram study did not mindlessly obey. Many wanted to stop but thought they could not.

Front 59

That's-not-all technique

Back 59

Adding something to an original offer, which is likely to create some pressure to reciprocate.

Front 60

Foot-in-door technique

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compliance technique in which one makes an initial small request to which nearly everyone complies, followed by a larger request involving real behavior of interest.

Front 61

Cialdini, et al. 1975 - door-in-face technique

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asked students if they were willing to chaperone a group of juvenile delinquents on a day trip to the zoo. More compliance if they were first asked to counsel delinquents for 2 hours a week for 2 years?

Front 62

Explain commitment and consistency in compliance

Back 62

Once we make a choice or take a stand, we will encounter personal and interpersonal pressure to behave consistently with that commitment.

Front 63

In the Lowball technique study, what was the procedure for the Lowball condition?

Back 63

participants were asked to make a donation to needy students. After they did, they were told that an incentive for the donation was no longer available. They were asked if they still wanted to donate.

Front 64

In the Lowball technique study, what was the procedure for the interrupt condition?

Back 64

The participants learned that the incentive to donate was no longer available before making the initial commitment to donate.

Front 65

What were the results of the lowball technique study?

Back 65

The participants of the interrupt condition were a lot less likely to donate than those of the lowball condition.

Front 66

Social proof

Back 66

We do what others around us are doing.

Front 67

Scarcity

Back 67

People assign more value to opportunities when they are less available.

Front 68

what is the level of compliance when the person is in a positive mood?

Back 68

They are more likely to agree to requests from others than when they are in a neutral mood. When in a positive mood, people are more likely to comply with requests that sustains that positive mood.

Front 69

what is the level of compliance when the person is in a negative mood?

Back 69

Also likely to increase compliance, for example, when someone feels guilty.

Front 70

Isen, Clark, and Schwartz (1976) - Positive mood study - explain the procedure

Back 70

Participants received a phone-call from someone who claimed to have spent the last dime on this very “misdialed” call, and who asked if the participant would dial the intended number and relay a message.

Front 71

What were the results of the Isen, Clark, and Schwartz study?

Back 71

only 10% agreed to do this

Front 72

What are some ways to induce a positive mood?

Back 72

Telling participants they have done well on a test.
• Having them think about happy thoughts.
• Playing cheerful music (often done shops)
• Giving them cookies.

Front 73

What are some consequences of people in a positive mood?

Back 73

• more likely to help with experiments
• donate blood
• tutor students

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Why does a positive mood have these consequences? 2 reasons.

Back 74

1. Requests for favors are more likely to be perceived as less intrusive and threatening when we are in positive mood.

2. Mood maintenance. We typically want the good feeling to last as long as possible.

Front 75

What negative moods increase compliance?

Back 75

Guilt: When people feel guilty, they are often motivated to do what they can to get rid of that awful feeling.

Witnessing Harm

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Negative state relief theory

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the idea that people engage in certain actions, such as agreeing to a request, in order to relieve negative feelings and to feel better about themselves.

Front 77

Harris, Benson, & Hall (1975) - Negative Mood: Guilt and Compliance study

Back 77

asking people for a favor when they are on their way into church for confession (they are feeling guilty) is more effective than asking them when they are on their way out (they have been relieved of their guilt)

Front 78

4 ways to resist social influence

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1. Reactance theory
2. Having practice in resisting authority/helping
3. Having an ally
4. Being aware of the danger of te stepwise nature of wrongdoings.

Front 79

Negative Mood: Witnessing harm - Rat experiment.

Back 79

participants witnessed how a rat was harmed (electric shock) -> after experiment: asked for a donation to a charitable cause -> participants donated as much money when they thought the harm to the rat was their fault, as they did when they thought the harm had been NOT their fault

Front 80

Cialdini, et al. Study that supports Negative State Relief theory

Back 80

o Participants spilled something when sitting down -> guilt
o Asked to help out another experimenter by making some phone calls
o Guilty participants volunteered to make more phone calls than the participants in the control condition (no guilt)
o If participants had received praise or a monetary rewards in between the event that made them feel guilty and the request, they were even less likely to help out the other experimenter (Participants felt better, even if they should still feel as guilty as before -> no need for compliance)

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Reactance Theory

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the idea that people reassert their prerogatives in response to the unpleasant state of arousal they experience when they believe their freedoms are threatened.

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3 components of attitudes

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1. affective 2. cognitions 3. behaviors

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Affect (Attitudes)

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emotional reactions to the object

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Cognition (attitudes)

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knowledge about the object

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Behavior (attitudes)

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when certain attitudes are primed we tend to act consistently with them.

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4 functions of attitudes

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1. utilitarian function
2. ego-defensive function
3. value-expressive function
4. knowledge function

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Utilitarian Function

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Attitudes alert us to rewarding objects and situations we should approach, and to costly or punishing objects or situations we should avoid.

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Utilitarian Function - modifying attitudes toward neutral objects

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pair the neutral object with a stimulus that generates a strong positive reaction.

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Ego-defensive function

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Attitudes serve an ego-defensive function, protecting us from awareness of unpleasant facts, including knowledge of our own unseemly attributes and impulses. We develop certain attitudes to maintain cherished beliefs about ourselves.

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Terror-management theory

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An example of ego-defensive function. theory that to ward off anxiety we feel when contemplating our own demise, we cling to cultural worldviews and strongly help values of a belief that by doing so part of us will survive.

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Reactance latency

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the time it takes an individual to respond to a stimulus such as an attitude question

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Mortality salience makes people:

Back 92

evaluate their own group more positively, express greater patriotism, express increased religious conviction, show greater conformity to cultural standards, and punish moral transgressors more strongly.

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Value-expressive function

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attitudinal function whereby attitudes help us express out most cherished values- usually in groups in which they can be reinforced and supported.

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How do we typically express our social and political attitudes? why is it importance

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We typically choose to express our social and political attitudes in groups, and this is an important factor in motivating us to identify with different groups.

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Knowledge Function of Attitudes

Back 95

Attitudes help to organize our understanding of the world. They guide how we attend to, store, and retrieve information, making us more efficient and on occasion more biased, social perceivers. We pay more attention to and recall information that is consistent with our preexisting attitudes.

Front 96

What are the direct measures of attitudes?

Back 96

Likert Scale and Semantic differential

Front 97

Likert Scale

Back 97

a numerical scale used to assess people's attitudes that includes a set of possible answers and that has anchors on each extreme.

Ex. How much do you like ice cream? 1 - not at all, 7- a lot

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Semantic Differential

Back 98

Consists of a list of bipolar adjective scales, usually divided into seven response categories. Respondents rate an attitude object by marking one of the seven categories for each of the bipolar adjectives pairs.

Front 99

Problems with direct measures of attitudes?

Back 99

People may not be willing to express their true attitudes
People may even not be able to tell their true attitudes, since they are not aware of them.

Front 100

Indirect measures of attitudes?

Back 100

the lost letter technique, the facial EMG, Attitude accessibility, Bona Fide Pipeline

Front 101

What is the procedure for the lost-letter technique?

Back 101

Behavioral measure: Involves leaving addressed letters in public places, as if they had been lost, and then recording the rate and condition of the returned letters. The attitude object studied is reflected in the address printed on the letter. By varying the address, attitudes toward different objects may be compared.

Front 102

Results of the lost-letter technique

Back 102

people were less likely to return the letters addressed to the friends of communist party or the friends of nazi party

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Attitude Accessibility

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Degree to which the attitude is ready to become active in the individual’s mind. Measured the time it takes the individual to respond.

Front 104

Bona Fide Pipeline (Fazio, et al. 1995) procedure

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In this paradigm, the presentation of evaluatively unambiguous target words (e.g. “horrible”) on a computer
screen is immediately preceded by the presentation of attitude objects that serve as primes. Respondents’ task is to categorize the target word as quickly as possible. By
pressing a “good” or a “bad” response key.

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Persuasion: 2 process approaches

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Heuristic-systematic model and Elaboration-Likelihood model

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Heuristic-systematic model

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a model of persuasion that maintains that there are two different routes of persuasion: the systematic route and the heuristic route.

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Elaboration-Likelihood model

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a model of persuasion that maintains that there are two different routes of persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route.

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Central (systematic) route

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a persuasive route wherein people think carefully and deliberately about the content of a message, attending to its logic, cogency, and arguments, as well as to related evidence and principals.

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Peripheral (Heuristic) Route

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a persuasive route wherein people attend to relatively simple, superficial cues related to the message, such as the length of the message or the expertise or attractiveness of the communicator.

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Motivations for Central (Systematic) route and Factor promoting attitude change

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issue is personally relevant, knowledgeable in domain, personally responsible. Factor: quality of argument

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Motivations for Peripheral (Heuristic) route and factors promoting attitude change

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issue is not personally relevant, distracted or fatigued, incomplete or hard-to-comprehend message. Factors: source attractiveness, fame, expertise. Number and length of arguments, and consensus.

Front 112

3 variables manipulated in the 2 process approaches of persuasion

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1. quality/strength of the persuasive message.
2. peripheral cues.
3. variables that determine which route will be taken.

Front 113

High relevance and strong arguments lead to....

Back 113

strong attitude change

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if, low relevance and strong arguments...

Back 114

the same arguments have little impact.

Front 115

if low relevance...

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the expertise of the source plays an important role

Front 116

Source Characteristic (the WHO)

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characteristics of the person who delivers the message, including the person's attractiveness, credibility, and expertise.

Front 117

sleeper effect

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an effect that ocurs when messages from unreliable sources initially exert little influence but later cause individuals' attitudes to shift.

Front 118

Message characteristics (the what)

Back 118

aspects of the message itself, including the quality of the evidence and the explicitness of its conclusions.

Front 119

Receiver characteristics (the whom)

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characteristics of the person who receives the message, including age, mood, personality, and motivation to attend to the message.

Front 120

identifiable victim effect

Back 120

tendency to be more moved by the plight of a single,vivid individual than by a more abstract aggregate of individuals.

Front 121

What makes for high-quality messages?

Back 121

Higher-qualitymessagesrefertodesirableyetnovel consequences of taking action in response to the message.
• Theyoftenappealtocorevaluesoftheaudience.
• Messagespresentedinoverlycomplexconfusing illogical or technical language bring about less attitude change than clearer, more straightforward messages.

Front 122

Persuasion: the who

Back 122

People immediately discount the arguments made by non-credible communicators but in time - sleeper effect.

Front 123

Persuasion: the what
what makes for high-quality messages?

Back 123

refer to desirable, yet novel consequences of taking action in response to the message, appeal to core values of the audience, presented clearer and more straightforward, 2 sided communication (counterarguments)

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Persuasion: the whom, age

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younger people are more susceptible to persuasion than adults or elders.

Front 125

Persuasion: The whom, mood

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positive mood are easier persuaded

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persuasion: the whom, need for cognition

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People high in the NFC like to think, to puzzle and to ponder. More persuaded by high-quality arguments and unmoved by peripheral cues.

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3 Weak effects of the media

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Consumer advertising, political advertising, public service announcements .

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Results for Gerber's analysis on "the world as depicted in the media"

Back 128

on prime-time programs:
Males out number females by a factor of 3 to 1.
• Ethnic minorities,young children,and the elderly are
substantially underrepresented.
• Many jobs(such as those in the service industry or the blue-collar world) are likewise underrepresented.
• Crime is wildly more prevalent than in real life.

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Gerber's results for heavy television viewers

Back 129

They tend to endorse more radically prejudiced attitudes.
They assume that women have more limited abilities than men.
They overestimate the prevalence of violent crimes.
They overestimate the number of physicians and lawyers.

Front 130

Why are media effects relatively weak?

Back 130

attentional biases - we do not only selectively attend certain info, we can also selectively evaluate this info.

Previous Commitments and resistance- If people make public commitments prior to receiving the persuasive message, they are less likely to be influenced.
Knowledge and resistance - People with a great deal of knowledge are more resistant to persuasion.
Attitude inoculation

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third-person effect

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the assumption by most people that "other people" are more prone to being influenced by persuasive messages than they are themselves.

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agenda control

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effects of the media to select certain events and topics to emphasize, thereby shaping which issues and events we think are important.

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thought polarization hypothesis

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the hypothesis that more extended though about a particular issues tends to produce more extreme, entrenched attitudes.

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attitude inoculation

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small attacks on out beliefs that engage out attitudes, prior commitments, and knowledge structures, enabling us to counteract a subsequent larger attack and be resistant to persuasion.

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3 factors of attraction

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proximity, similarity, and physical attractiveness

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Proximity

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physical proximity that has to influence whether people become friends or lovers. For example, the most enduring friendships are forged between people whose paths cross frequently.

Front 137

Festinger, Schachter, & Back Proximity procedure

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students were randomly assigned to apartments and then were asked to name 3 other students they saw socially most often

Front 138

Results of Festinger, Schachter, & Back

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2/3 of those listed as friends lived in the same building as the respondent. = proximity leads to friendship

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Sociometric Survey

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a survey that attempts to measure the interpersonal relationships in a group of people

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functional distance

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an architectural layout's tendency to encourage or inhibit certain activities, like contact between people. More decisive than physical distance.

Front 141

Segal study - training academy of the maryland state police procedure

Back 141

45 aspiring police officers were assigned alphabetically to their dormitory rooms and
classroom seats.

Front 142

Why does proximity lead to friendship?

Back 142

availibility and propinquity, anticipation of interaction, mere exposure effect,

Front 143

Proximity leads to friendship: Availability and Propinquity

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Proximity makes the first contact likely that it is necessary to establish friendship.

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Proximity leads to friendship: Anticipation of interaction

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People tend to give others with whom they expect to interact the benefit of the doubt. Simply knowing that we are going to interact with someone increases our liking of this person.

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Mere exposure effect

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the finding that the repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to greater liking of the stimulus

Front 146

counterbalancing

Back 146

a methodological procedure used to ensure that any extraneous variable (ex. a stimulus person's name) that might influence the dependent measure (ex. liking) is distributed equally across experimental conditions.

Front 147

Why does repeated exposure lead to liking?

Back 147

1. People find it easiest to perceive and cognitively process familiar stimuli, finding the experience of fluency pleasurable, thus - making the stimuli more appealing.

2. mere exposure is associated with absence of any negative consequences, forming a pleasant attachment to the stimulus. It is reinforcing

Front 148

„bogus stranger“ paradigm

Back 148

participants are given responses to attitude and personality questionnaires from someone else. These are constructed to create a given level of similarity. The more similar, the better these strangers are liked.

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Similarity

Back 149

1. We like others who are similar to us.
2. Old couples grow to look alike
3. Mimicry and incidental similarity increase liking and pro-social behavior

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emotion

Back 150

non-specific physiological arousal + cognitive interpretation

Front 151

complementary

Back 151

tendency for people to seek out others with characteristics that are different from and that complement their own.

Front 152

halo effect

Back 152

common belief that attractive individuals possess a host of positive qualities beyond their physical appearance.

Front 153

Why does similarity promote attraction?

Back 153

1. Similar Others Validate Our Beliefs and Orientations.
2. Similarity Facilitates Smooth Interactions
3. We Expect Similar Others to Like Us
4. Similar Others Have Qualities We Like

Front 154

Halo effect across cultures

Back 154

. USA – example of independent culture: attractive individuals are considered more dominant and assertive; Korea – example of interdependent culture: they are thought to be more generous, sensitive and empathic than unattractive individuals. In both: smarter, better adjusted and more sociable than the unattractive individuals.

Front 155

Physical attractiveness as a child

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attractive children have more affectionate parents, more popular among peers, and with teachers.

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Gender and physical attractiveness

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physical attractiveness is more important in determining a woman's life outcome than a man's. Beauty can translate to power for woman.

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Why does physical attractiveness have such an impact?

Back 157

1. immediacy
2. prestige
3. biology

Front 158

immediacy - impact of physical attractiveness

Back 158

Attractiveness is associate with many more other positive characteristics and immediately after we see someone attractive we are trumped with those characteristics. Beauty is seen after few seconds, while intelligence may be more important – but it takes time to be seen in a person

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Prestige - impact of physical attractiveness

Back 159

• Person consumes the good looks of his or her partner through direct effects such as aesthetic appreciation and sexual excitement, but there are indirect effects of having attractive partner: others may evaluate you more highly!

Front 160

reproductive fitness

Back 160

the capacity to get one's genes passed on to subsequent generations. People seen with reproductive fitness are seen as more attractive.

Front 161

What constitutes as physical attractiveness?

Back 161

1. symmetry
2. reproductive quality

Front 162

intrasex competition

Back 162

direct competition between 2 or more females for access to members of the opposite sex.

Front 163

intersex attraction

Back 163

the interest and attraction toward a member of the opposite sex.

Front 164

Reward theory of interpersonal attraction

Back 164

people tend to like those who provide them with rewards and thus make them feel good

Front 165

social exchange theory

Back 165

theory based on the fact that there are costs and rewards in all relationships and that how people feel about a relationship depends on their assessment of its costs and rewards and the costs and rewards to them in other relationships.

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equity theory

Back 166

theory that maintains that people are motivated to pursue fairness, or equity, in their relationships, with rewards and costs shared roughly equally among individuals.

Front 167

the importance of relationships

Back 167

relationships create human nature

Front 168

Problems with studying relationships

Back 168

not true experiments - no random assignment, self-selection, longitudinal methods

Front 169

Harry Harlow Procedure

Back 169

Rhesus monkeys raised without contact with other monkeys. Instead, access to two ‘mother surrogates’ (vaguely resembling monkeys)

Front 170

Harlow's monkeys results

Back 170

monkeys preferred the comfort mother over the nourishment mother.

Front 171

Optimal distinctiveness theory

Back 171

individuals desire to attain an optimal balance of distinction and assimilation

Front 172

optimal identity

Back 172

One that satisfies the need for inclusion within the ingroup (identifying with the particular group) as well as the need for distinctiveness between the ingroup and outgroups, so as to distinguish that particular group from others

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The need to belong: evolutionary basis

Back 173

Relationships help individuals survive
§ Parent-offspring attachments ensure that infants and children have sufficient protection to survive until they can function independently

Front 174

The need to belong: universal need

Back 174

Similar kinds of dynamics in different
cultures around the world, Between romantic partners, parents and children, siblings, friends, and group members

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Need to belong: guides social cogniton

Back 175

Relationships serve as important categories for how we process and store social information
• We organize our understanding of a scene in terms of relationships (friends, colleagues, couples, etc.)
• Attributions of social behaviors are shaped by relationships

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Need to belong: satiable

Back 176

It motivates thoughts and behaviors until it is
satisfied

Front 177

need to belong and health

Back 177

Having a lot of support from others strengthens our cardiovascular, immune, and endocrine systems

Front 178

costs of social rejection

Back 178

Activates a threat defense system
• Stress-related cardiovascular arousal • Release of the stress hormone cortisol • Defensive aggressive
tendencies • Feelings of distress
and pain

Front 179

Ball-tossing paradigm (Williams, 2007)

Back 179

One participant and two confederates play a
toss ball game
§ The two confederates stop throwing the ball to the participant for 5 minutes
 Being the rejected participant in this game triggers feelings of distress, shame, self doubt, and submissive posture

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Social rejection and aggression

Back 180

People who report a chronic sense of rejection are more likely to act aggressively in their romantic relationships

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interpersonal relationships

Back 181

attachments in which bonds of family or friendshsip or love or respect or hierarchy tie together 2 or more individuals over an extended period of time

Front 182

attachment theory (Bowlby)

Back 182

theory about how early attachments with out parents shape out relationships for the remainder of our lives

Front 183

working model of relationships

Back 183

a conceptual model of relationships with our current partners - including their availability, warmth and ability to provide security - as derived from our childhood experience with how available and warm our parents were.

Front 184

how relationships function

Back 184

Beliefs about others’ availability, warmth, and
ability to provide security
 Originate early in life and shape our relationships

Front 185

Parents' availability and responsiveness create

Back 185

a secure base, allow the child to explore the environment and a sense of security and confidence

Front 186

Mary Ainsworth "Strange Situation" paradigm

Back 186

• Infants and caregivers entered an unfamiliar room containing a large number of interesting toys. As the infant began to play with the toys, a stranger walked in. The caregiver quietly left while the stranger stayed in the room. The caregiver returned after 3 min to greet and comfort the infant, if he/she was upset.

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"self-selection"

Back 187

occurs when investigators do not have control over assignment of participants to the conditions that are to be compared. Participants “select” their own condition, and we may never know in what ways they may differ from other participants.

Front 188

3 types of attachment styles

Back 188

anxious, secure, and avoidant attachment styles

Front 189

Secure attachment style

Back 189

attachment style characterized by feelings of security in relationships. Individuals with this style are comfortable with intimacy and want to be close to others during times of threat or uncertainty.

Front 190

anxious attachment style

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attachement style characterized by feelings of insecurity in relationships. Individuals compulsively seek closeness, express continual worries about relationships, and excessively try to get closer to others during times of threat and uncertainty

Front 191

avoidant attachment style

Back 191

attachment style characterized by feelings of insecurity in relationships. Individuals with this style exhibit compulsive self-reliance, prefer distance from others, and are dismissive and detached in times of threat and uncertainty.

Front 192

Rational Self Theory (Anderson & Chen)

Back 192

theory that examines how prior relationships shape our current beliefs, feelings, and interactions. Vis-o-vis people who remind us of significant others from our past.

Front 193

Rational self

Back 193

the beliefs, feelings, and expectations that we have about ourselves that derive from our relationships with significant others.

Front 194

exchange relationships

Back 194

relationships, in which the individuals feel little responsibility toward one another and in which giving and receiving are governed by concerns about reciprocity and equity; such relationships are often short term.

Front 195

communal relationships

Back 195

Relationships in which the individuals feel a special responsibility for one another and give and receive according to the principal of need; such relationships are often long-term.

Front 196

3 things power affects

Back 196

1. the way we speak
• Low-power: politely, using requests indirectly, vague questions
• High-power: forcefully, directly, pointed questions, commands

2. the way we look at each other
Low-power: look away when speaking, look at others when listen
• High-power: look at listeners when speaking and are looked when speaking

3. the way we dress

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power

Back 197

The ability to control our own outcomes and those of others, and the freedom to act

Front 198

authority

Back 198

Power that derives from institutionalized roles or arrangements

Front 199

dominance

Back 199

Behavior that has the acquisition or demonstration of power as its goal.

Front 200

status

Back 200

The outcome of an evaluation of attributes that produces differences in respect and prominence

Front 201

Where does power come from? (5)

Back 201

1. power - based on groups
2. expertise - based on knowledge
3. coercion - based on the ability to use force and aggression
4. rewards - based on the ability to provide rewards
5. reference power- based on the ability to serve as a role model

Front 202

approach/inhibition theory

Back 202

theory that states that higher-power individuals are inclines to go after their goals and make quick judgments, whereas low-power individuals are more likely to constrain their behavior and attend to others carefully.

Front 203

Power influencing behavior

Back 203

1. approach/inhibition theory
2. reduced power = more vigilant and careful in social judgement and more inhibited in social behavior

Front 204

Social dominance orientation

Back 204

the desire to see one’s own group dominate other groups.

Front 205

triangular theory of love (Sternberg)

Back 205

A theory that states there are 3 major components of love – Passion, intimacy and commitment – which can be combined in different ways.

Front 206

investment model of interpersonal relationships

Back 206

A model of interpersonal relationships that maintains that 3 things make partners more committed to each other: rewards, few alternative partners, and investments in the relationships.

Front 207

what kinds of individuals rise in social hierarchies?

Back 207

the most socially engaged, cooperative, and emotionally intelligent.

Front 208

2 hypotheses of the approach/inhibition theory

Back 208

perception of others (accuracy)
behavior toward others (inhibitions)

Front 209

High-powered individuals and the perception of others

Back 209

less accurate. Less systematic and careful in how they judge other people. More inclined to stereotype others. Reduces the ability to empathize,.

Front 210

Low-power people and the perception of others

Back 210

less flexible in their thought, induced to feel powerful or powerless, less effective in performing cognitive tasks.

Front 211

Power and inhibitions (High power)

Back 211

Touch others and approach them closely physically – Turn off an annoying fan in the room
– Flirt in overly direct ways

Front 212

Low-power and inhibitions

Back 212

Constrict their posture
– Inhibit their speech and facial expressions – Withdraw in group interactions

Front 213

High-power and preexisting tendencies

Back 213

power allows individuals to express their true inclinations

Front 214

4 negative behaviors most harmful to relationship

Back 214

1. criticism
2. defensiveness
3. stonewalling
4. contempt

Front 215

predictors of dissatisfaction and divorce

Back 215

neuroticism
socioeconomic status
age

Front 216

3 ways to creating stronger romantic bonds

Back 216

1. Capitalize on the good - share what is good in your life with your partner, spread the good news.
2. be playful
3. care and forgive

Front 217

active constructive response

Back 217

when one partner responds to the good news with engaged enthusiasm.

Front 218

passive constructive response

Back 218

responses are still supportive but not actively so

Front 219

active destructive response

Back 219

involve direct criticisms or undermining of the positive event; partner might raise doubts.

Front 220

passive destructive response

Back 220

defined by disinterest or nonchalance

Front 221

Illusions and idealization in relationships

Back 221

Sandra Murray - • Individuals who idealize their romantic partners were more satisfied in their relationship.
• More satisfied romantic partners overestimated how much positive affect their partner was showing and underestimated their partner’s negative emotion.

Front 222

the pitfalls that arranged marriages avoid

Back 222

• Avoid mismatches in socioeconomic status and religion
• More likely that the in-laws will regard one another with respect
• Lack of expectation that there should be romantic love makes it less likely that it’s inevitable fading will be a source of disappointment.

Front 223

stereotypes

Back 223

the beliefs about attributes that are thought to be characteristic of members of a particular group. Cognitive aspect

Front 224

prejudice

Back 224

negative attitude or affective response toward a certain group and its
individual members. the affective aspect.

Front 225

discrimination

Back 225

an unfair treatment of members of a particular group based on their group membership. behavioral aspect.

Front 226

Economic Perspective of Stereotyping

Back 226

Groups develop prejudice about one another and discriminate against one another when they compete for material resources.
Realistic group conflict theory. Prejudice and discrimination should increase under conditions of economic difficulty. Strongest among groups that stand to lose the most from another group's economic advance.

Front 227

Realistic group conflict theory

Back 227

Group conflict, prejudice, and discrimination are likely to arise over competition between groups for limited desired resources.

Front 228

Robber's cave experiment

Back 228

Sherif
Twenty-two fifth grade boys were taken to Robber’s Cave State Park in Oklahoma. Two-and-a-half week summer camp.
Boys were divided into two groups of eleven and taken to the park on two successive days.
Phase 1: The two groups independently engaged in activities designed to foster group unity and contended themselves with common camp activities such as playing baseball, swimming, etc. Considerable group cohesion developed. Groups gave themselves names; the Eagles and the Rattlers.Phase 2: Eagles and Rattlers were brought together for a tournament. Winners would receive a medal and a pocket knife.
Tournament lasted for five days (baseball, touch football, treasure hunt, etc.)
Inter-group hostility was the result. Calling names, burning the others’ flag, food fight in dining area etc.Phase 3:
The boys were simply brought together for two days after the tournament was over.
Nothing really changed.
Boys were confronted with a number of crises that could only be resolved through the cooperative efforts of both groups. (e.g. the water supply to the camp was disrupted; a truck carrying food mysteriously broke down.)

Front 229

Robber's cave results

Back 229

Intergroup conflict soon vanished. Super-ordinate goals reduce prejudice and discrimination. Neither differences in background, nor histories of conflict are necessary for intergroup hostility to develop. Competition for a good that only one group can achieve is sufficient.
- But also: Intergroup hostility can be diminished, by getting them together to fulfill common goals.

Front 230

modern racism (symbolic racism)

Back 230

prejudice toward other racial groups that exist alongs side rejection of explicitly racist beliefs.

Front 231

implicit association test

Back 231

technique for revealing nonconscious prejudices toward particular groups.

Front 232

Allport, 1954 - The nature of prejudice

Back 232

moving away from including evaluative assessments of the “goodness” of stereotyping or those who stereotype. He defined stereotypes as “exaggerated believes associated with categories”.

Front 233

Minimal group paradigm

Back 233

experimental paradigm in which researchers create groups based on an arbitrary and seemingly meaningless criteria and then examine how the members of these "minimal groups" are inclined to behave toward one another.

Front 234

Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & turner, 1979)

Back 234

People strive for positive self-evaluations
-Distinction of personal and social aspects of identity.
-People compare themselves to relevant others to get a positive view on the personal self.
-If that is not possible, they switch to social identifications to boost their self-evaluation.
-Intergroup comparisons can result in negative social identity. -Derogation of out-groups as a means for self-enhancement.

Front 235

boosting the status of the ingroup

Back 235

By helping a member of your group, he might be more successful thus the group might be more successful, thus your self-esteem rises

Front 236

basking in reflected glory

Back 236

tendency to take pride in the accomplishements of those with whom we are in some way associated (even if it's only weakly), as when fans identify with a winning team.

Front 237

derogating outgroups to bolster self-esteem

Back 237

when one's self-esteem is threatened due to bad performance, he/she starts to derogate outgroups.

Front 238

Modern racisms 4 beliefs

Back 238

1) Discrimination is a thing of the past.
2) African Americans are too pushy, in trying to get into
places where they are not welcome.
3) The demands of African Americans are unfair.
4) African Americans’ gains (through affirmative action) are undesired and unfair.

Front 239

frustration-aggression theory

Back 239

The theory that frustration leads to aggression.

Front 240

outgroup homogeneity effect

Back 240

The tendency to assume that within-group similarity is much stronger for outgroups than for ingroups.

Front 241

biased information processing

Back 241

the tendency to recognize behaviors that confirm a stereotype stronger and avoid/ignore behaviors that might disprove a stereotype.

Front 242

illusory correlation

Back 242

An erroneous belief about a connection between events, characteristics, or categories that are not in fact related.

Front 243

subtyping

Back 243

Explaining away exceptions to a given stereotype by creating a subcategory of the stereotyped group that can be expected to differ from the group as a whole

Front 244

automatic processes

Back 244

processes that occur outside of our awareness, without conscious control

Front 245

controlled processes

Back 245

processes that occur with conscious direction and deliberate thought.

Front 246

attributional ambiguity

Back 246

People who know that there exists prejudices against

Front 247

sterotype threat

Back 247

PP are often frightened to act in line with the stereotypes existing against their groups what highly influences their performances and behavior.

Front 248

factors to reduce prejudice between groups

Back 248

o The groups have equal status
o Shared goals and thus cooperative interaction
o One-on-one interactions between group members are important to reduce prejudice.

Front 249

is stereotyping inevitable?

Back 249

Stereotype activation often results in corresponding automatic behavior.
2) Even individuals who want to avoid stereotypic thinking and discriminative behavior show the same effects of automatic stereotype activation as highly prejudiced individuals.
3) Although it is possible in many contexts to intentionally suppress the use of stereotypes, doing so is likely to result in rebound effects once the intention to suppress is no more important.

Front 250

How are stereotypes maintained?

Back 250

illusory correlations, biased information processing:Encoding and recall of stereotype consistent and inconsistent information., linguistic intergroup bias

Front 251

consequences of being a target of stereotyping

Back 251

1. attributional ambiguity
2. stereotype threat
3. self objectification

Front 252

Social facilitation

Back 252

The effect, positive or negative, of the presence of others on performance.

Front 253

Evaluation Apprehension

Back 253

A concern about how one is evaluated by others.

Front 254

factors triggering or increasing group confirmation bias

Back 254

- Homogeneity of group members‘ individually preferred alternatives
- Directive leadership - Accountability (pressure to justify
group decision)

Front 255

factors counteracting or decreasing group confirmation bias

Back 255

- Minority size
- Consistency of the minority - Devil‘s advocacy

Front 256

Zajonc’s Theory (1965) - social facilitation

Back 256

the (mere) presence of others facilitates performance on simple or well-learned tasks, but hinders performance on difficult/novel tasks

Front 257

3 components of social facilitation

Back 257

1. • Mere presence of others makes a person more aroused (because we need to be alert in order to be able to react to what the other might do)

2. • Arousal makes a person more “rigid”: they become even more inclined to do what they are already inclined to do → more likely to make a dominant

3. • Easy/well-learned tasks: dominant response = correct response → correct response is facilitated → performance enhanced

Front 258

distraction-conflict theory

Back 258

being aware of another person’s presence creates a conflict between attending to that person and attending to the task at hand → this conflict is what is arousing and produces social facilitation effects

Front 259

social loafing

Back 259

tendency to exert less effort when working on a group task in which individual contributions cannot be monitored (and maybe don’t seem crucial)

Front 260

emergent properties of groups

Back 260

behaviours that only emerge when people are in groups.

Front 261

individuation

Back 261

an enhanced sense of individual identity produced by focusing attention on the self, generally leading people to act carefully, deliberately and in accordance with their sense of propriety and values.

Front 262

self-awareness theory

Back 262

when people focus their attention inward on themselves, they become concerned with self-evaluation and how their current behaviour conforms to their internal standards and values

Front 263

spotlight effect

Back 263

people’s conviction that other people are attending to them (their appearance and behaviour) more than is actually the case (positive and negative)

Front 264

groupthink

Back 264

a kind of faulty thinking on the part of highly cohesive groups in which the critical scrutiny that should be devoted to the issue at hand is subverted by social pressures to reach consensus

Front 265

self-censorship

Back 265

: withholding information or opinions in group discussion, evoked by strong leaders (intimidating group members by uttering their preferences) and the desire to find consensus (especially when issue is stressful)

Front 266

preventing group think

Back 266

• Leader refraining from making his/her opinions/preferences known at the beginning → “boss’s view” does not affect others
• Not cutting off group from outside input
• Designating one person in group to name any and all weaknesses in the group’s proposed plan (“devil’s advocate”)

Front 267

risky shift

Back 267

groups make riskier decisions than individuals would

Front 268

group polarization

Back 268

group decisions tend to be more extreme than those made by individuals. Whatever way the individuals are leaning, group discussion tends to make them lean further in that direction.

Front 269

Social comparison theory

Back 269

when there is no objective standard of evaluation or comprehension, people evaluate their opinions and abilities by comparing themselves to others

Front 270

hostile aggression

Back 270

Behavior intended to harm another, either physically or psychologically, and motivated by feelings of anger and hostility.

Front 271

instrumental aggression

Back 271

Behavior intended to harm
another in the service of motives other than pure hostility (for example, to attract attention, to acquire wealth, or to advance political and ideological causes).

Front 272

relational aggression

Back 272

through gossip, alliance formation, and exclusion, etc. Women mainly do this.

Front 273

Media and Violence

Back 273

Correlating 8-year-old’s violence viewing with their later likelihood of adult spouse abuse (Huesmann & others, 2003).
Ø Correlating adolescents’ violence viewing with their later likelihood of assault, robbery, and threats of injury (Johnson & others, 2002).
Ø Correlating elementary schoolchildren’s violent media exposure with how often they got into fights when restudied two to six months later (Gentile et al., 2004)

Front 274

How does watching tv violence affect our thinking?

Back 274

1. desensitization
2. social scripts
3. altered perception
4. cognitive priming

Front 275

violent video games- what it does to the player

Back 275

1) Increases arousal. Heart rate and blood pressure rise.
2) Increases aggressive thinking. As seen above.
3) Increases aggressive feelings. Frustration levels rise, as does expressed hostility
4) Increases aggressive behavior. As seen above.
5) Decreases prosocial behavior. After violent video-game playing, people become slower to help a person whimpering in the hallway outside and slower to offer help to peers.

Front 276

effects of non violent pornography

Back 276

Prior exposure to large amounts of pornography can reduce arousal-based aggression but increase the kind of insensitive attitudes that could promote acceptance of future aggression.

Front 277

effects of violent porn

Back 277

Adding violence to pornography greatly increases the possibility of harmful effects.
Violent pornography is a triple threat: It brings together high arousal; negative emotional reactions such as shock, alarm, and disgust; and aggressive thoughts.

male-to-female aggression is increased

Front 278

Situational determinants of aggression

Back 278

1. heat
2. frustration-aggression
3. relative deprivation
4. weapons and violence

Front 279

Relations and violence

Back 279

step-relations are prone to violence

Front 280

bystander intervention

Back 280

helping a victim of an emergency by those who have observed what is happening; bystander intervention is generally reduced as the number of observers increases, as each individual fells that someone else will probably help)

Front 281

diffusion of responsibility

Back 281

reduction of a sense of urgency to help someone involved in an emergency or dangerous situation under the assumption that others who are also observing the situation will help) → others are present → others would help if the help is really needed

Front 282

reciprocal altruism

Back 282

tendency to help others with the expectation that they are likely to help us in return at some future time)

Front 283

Rumination

Back 283

tendency to think about a stressful event repeatedly and to prolong stress by generalizing criticism

Front 284

self-distancing

Back 284

ability to focus on one's feelings from the perspective of a detached observer

Front 285

loss aversion

Back 285

- Whenever people are in the situation to possess shares of two different companies with the same value, they tend to sell those shares that raised in value instead of those that lost