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34 Cards in this Set
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What are self-schemas? |
They are internal representations that guide the processing of self-relevant information. There are some dimensions of the self that different individuals will or won't have schemas for. |
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Describe Markus' (1977) experiment investigating self-schemas |
1. selected female participants who were schematic or schematic for 'independent' and 'dependent' traits (based on trait endorsements and ratings of importance 2. participants were then given adjectives like 'assertive' and 'self-confident' which fall in the independent schema or those like 'conforming' and 'cautious' which fall in the 'dependent schema and participants were asked to assign them to 'me' or 'not me' categories. Those with dependence schemas reacted more quickly to dependent adjectives |
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What is symbolic interactionism? |
Seeing the self as a product of interactions with other people. Their responses to our behaviour shapes its meaning for us and contribute to the production of self as the subject 'I' |
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Describe Turner's (1982) self-categorisation theory |
A variety of personal and social identities are available to individuals. 1. personal identities: self-categorisations in terms of me vs. you as individuals (e.g. traits, abilities, etc.) 2. social identities: self-categorisations in terms of us vs. them based on group membership (e.g. gender, race, etc.) |
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What effects does self-categorisation in terms of social identities have? |
It increases perceptions of in-group homogeneity and distinctiveness from out-groups. It makes those identities more salient and out-groups more different. |
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Eastern cultures tend to be more ___? Western cultures are rather more ___? |
1. collectivistic 2. individualistic |
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Describe Cousins' (1989) experiment investigating self-schemas in eastern and western cultures. |
1. Participants were asked to write down 20 statements that describe themselves in order to answer the question "who am i", each beginning "I am..." 2. In the contextualised version the responses were relating to who the participant felt they were 'at home', 'with friends', etc. 3. Responses were categorised into personal attributes and social relations Results: US students used personal descriptors more when in the standard condition. Japanese students used personal descriptors more in the contextualised version of the questionnaire. |
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Outline Markus and Kitayama's (1991) analysis of the self concepts and goals of independent vs interdependent cultures |
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What does WEIRD stand for? |
Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich, Democratic societies. |
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Why is the correspondence bias no longer considered fundamental? |
There is evidence that it is not consistent across all cultures. |
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What did Miller (1984) find when measuring the proportion of references to general internal dispositions by Hindi and US participants when describing how someone behaves after receiving good/bad news. |
1. Participants were 8, 11, 15 and adult. 2. The proportion used by Hindi participants remained constant, however the proportion increased as US participants got older. |
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Describe Higgins' 1987 self-discrepancy theory |
1. We have two representations of the self - one that we feel we should be and one that we aspire to be. 2. The difference between the two (the ought self and the ideal self) serves as motivation to improve. Ought self: based on a sense of duty, responsibility or obligation Ideal self: based on hopes, goals and wishes |
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Describe Higgins' 1987 theory of actual vs ideal and actual vs ought self comparisons. What are the regulatory foci, the means of goal pursuit and the emotional reactions to any discrepancies? |
AvI: promotion focus, eagerness, depression AvO: prevention focus, vigilance, anxiety |
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Describe the results of Higgins et al.'s self-guide priming experiment in which they used high self-discrepancy participants. |
People who are high in actual-ought or actual-ideal discrepancies, when primed for 'ideal' feel dejected and when primed for 'ought' feel anxious. |
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What are the four main motives for self-evaluation? |
Self-verification Self-assessment Self-improvement Self-enhancement |
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What is self-verification motivation? |
the desire to confirm the pre-existing view of self - linked to consistency seeking. |
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What is the self-assessment motivation? |
the desire to seek self-accuracy, regardless of whether it fits pre-existing ideas or makes you feel better or worse |
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What is the self-improvement motivation? |
the desire to make the self better (e.g. through upward comparison or self-criticism) |
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What is the self-enhancement motivation? |
the desire to hold a positive view of the self (e.g. through self-congratulation or downward comparison) |
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Which is the most over-riding self-evaluation motivation? |
Self-enhancement |
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How dose group-based self-enhancement work? |
We identify with a particular group and compare ourselves with a group we perceive to be inferior, thereby bolstering our self-esteem as a member of a particular in-group. |
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Give an experimental example of real-world group-based self-enhancement. |
Cialdini et al. (1976) found that students were more likely to wear their university insignia following victories of the university's football team than after losses. This is BIRGing (basking in reflected glory) |
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What are 'positive illusions'. What are the four main types of positive illusion? |
Positive illusions are distorting biases that have an effect when people are processing information relevant to the self. 1. personality perceptions 2. illusory control 3. unrealistic optimism 4. immunity to bias |
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Give an example of a personality-based positive illusion. |
Participants rated their own personality more positively than that of friends or peers and have higher opinions of those who flatter them than those that observe the flattery |
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Give an example of illusory control. |
Non-depressed participants feel more control when personally throwing dice |
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Give an example of unrealistic optimism |
participants rate themselves as relatively less likely to experience negative events |
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Give an example of illusory immunity to bias |
People rate themselves as less biased that other people |
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Describe the two types of self-serving attributional biases. |
Self-enhancing bias: a tendency to attribute successful or positive outcomes to one's own abilities or efforts Self-protective bias: tendency to atribute failures or negative outcomes to external causes |
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Describe Johnson et al.'s experiment investigating teachers' perceptions of the causes of learning failure |
1. After having 10x and 20x multiplication explained to them by EP students, two (virtual) pupils took a short arithmetic test. 2. Pupil A performed well at both, Pupil B constituted the manipulation of the outcome. - Improvement condition: B does poorly at 10x but subsequently does as well as A at 20x - No improvement condition: B failed to improve on the second multiplication task. 3. EP students were asked to make judgements about the performance of the children Results: the 'teachers' tended to attribute good performance to their own good teaching and poor performance to the stupidity of the child |
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For which two groups of people do we not see these self-serving biases so prevalently? |
1. depressed people 2. people from collectivistic cultures |
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Explain collectivistic self-criticism |
cultural relativists argue that self-enhancement is absent in collectivist cultures and that the members are more likely to be self-critical |
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Explain adaptive self-esteem |
some people think that maintaining high self-esteem is essential to adaptive functioning even if it implies bias |
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Explain collectivist self-enhancement |
Sekides et al. (2003) found evidence that Japanese participants self-enhance on collectivistic traits while US participants self-enhance on individualistic traits |
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What are 'mutable' and 'immutable' self-views? Give examples of each. |
Mutable: used in situations of uncertainty and before decisions are taken. e.g. self-assessment and self-improvement Immutable: used when there is a threat or after unchangeable decisions have been made e.g. self-enhancement and self-verification |
