Social Cognition And Emotion

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social cognition

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the way in which we interpret and try to comprehend social events.

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causal attribution

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a step of inferring or concluding what the cause of an observation was.

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situational attribution

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attributions that focus on factors that are external to a person, such as te weather, the difficulty of an exam, or other qualitites of the situaiton.

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dispositional attribution

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attributions which focus on factors that are internal to the person, sucha s a person's traits, preferences, and other internal qualities.

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individualistic cultures

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a cultural pattern in which people are considered to be fundamentally independent and in which the emphasis is on the ways a person can stand out through achieving private goals.

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covary

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the tendency of two varieables to bary together. If one goes up as teh other goes up, the correclation is positive; if one goes up as teh other goes down, the correclation is negative.

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collectivistic cultures

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a culutural pattern in which people are considered to be fundamentally interdependent and obligations within one's family and immediate community are emphasized.

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fundamental attribution error

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the tendency to attribute behaviors to dispostitional qualities while underrating the role of the situation.

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observer difference

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the difference in attributions made by actors who describe their own actions and observers who describe their own actions and observers who describe another person's. The former emphasizes external, situational causes; the latter, internal, dispositional factors.

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entity theorists

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individuals who believe some aspect of personality or intellectual functioning is fixed.

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implicit theories of personality

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beliefs about the way in which different patterns of behavior of people hang together and why they do so.

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entity theorists

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individuals who believe some aspect of personality of intellectual functioning is fixed.

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incremental theorists

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individuals who believe some aspect of personality or intellectual functioning is malleable.

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out-group homogeneity effect

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a phenomenon related to stereotyping in which a member of a group (the in-group) tends to view members of antoher group (the out-group) as more alike (less varied) than are members of his or her own group.

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confirmation bias

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the tendency to seek evidence to support one's hypothesis rather than to look for evidence that will undermine the hypothesis.

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self-fulfilling prophecies

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beliefs about how a person will act which actually make that action more likely.

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stereotype threat

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a hypothesized mechanism through which a person's performance on a test is influenced by her perception that hte test results may confirm others' stereotypes about her.

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self-schema

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an organized knowledge structure that refers to the self.

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possible selves

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self-schemas for who one may be in the future.

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ideal self

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the concept that each person holds describing how they ought to behave; in self theories, the self that one would ideally like to be.

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ought-self

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in self theories, the ought self is th self one thinks one should be.

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promotion focus

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an orientation to actively pursue valued goals throught to arise when we comapre our actual self to our ideal self.

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prevention focus

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an orientation to avoid doing harm thorught to arise when we compare our actual self to our ourght self.

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trait self-esteem

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one's typical self-esteem

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state self-esteem

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self-esteem which can vary from moment to moment depending on what happening in one's life and the aspects of oneself to which one is attending.

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self-esteem

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the relative balance of positive and negative judgements about oneself.

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self-serving attributional bias

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a bias toward explanations that make oneself seem better in some way. These often take the form of dispositional explanationsfor one's successes and situational explanations for one's failures.

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self-handicapping

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a self-protective strategy in whihc ne arranges for an obvious and nonthreatening obstacle to one's own performance, such that any failure can be attributed to the obstacle and not to one's own limitations.

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social-identity theory

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a theory that holds that people derive their self-concepts and self-esteem in part form the status and accomplishments of the various groups to which they belong.

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minimal groups paradigm

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a samll group interaction paradigm in which groups of individuals are formed on obviously arbitrary grounds.

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in-group members

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the social group that one is a member of, usually perceived as mroe homogenous than other groups of which one is not a member.

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out-group members

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a social group with which one does not identify or to which one does not belong.

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in-group favoritism

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the tendency to favor one's own group.

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discrimination

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a process of learning to respond to certain stimuli that are reinforced and not to others that are unreinforced.

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attitudes

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a fairly stable, evaluate disposition that makes a person think, feel, or behave positively or negatively about some person, group, or social issue.

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implicit measures of attitudes

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attitudinal measures which do not involve explicit reports by the participant. Examples include measures of facial behavior and reation times in response to various attitude-relevent stimuli.

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operant conditioning

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a form of learning in which a reinforcer is given only if the animal performs the instrumental response. In effect, what has to be learned is the relatoinship between the response and the reinforcer.

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observational learning

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a mechanism of socialization whereby a child observes another person who serves as a model and then proceeds to imitate what that model does.

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central route to persuasion

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the processes involved in attitude change when someone cares about an issue and devotes resources to thinking about the issue. This route depends on evidence and good arguments, and is contrasted with the peripheral route.

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peripheral route to persuasion

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the processes involved in attitude change when someone does not care particularly about an issue or devotes few resources to thinking about the issue. This routedepends on superficial considerations, such as the appearance of the person giving the persuasive information, and is contrasted with the central route.

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cognitive dissonance

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an inconsistancy among some expereinces, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings. According to dissonance theory, this sets up an unpleasantstate that people try to reduce by reinterpreting some part of their experiences to make them consistenct with the others.

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self-perception theory

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the theory that we know our own attitudes and feelings only indirectly, by observing our own behavior and then performing much the same processes of attribution that we employ when trying to understand others.

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underjustified behavior

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lying without receiving a large enough payment to justify the lie.

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overjustified behavior

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we reveived more payment than our action merited.

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moods

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affective responses that are typicallly longer-lasting than emotions, and less likely to have a specific object.

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emotions

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affective responses (such as joy, sadness, pride, and anger), which are characterized by loosely linked changes in three domains: behavior (how we act), subjective experience (how we feel), and physiology (how various systems in our bodies respond).

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James-Lange theory of emotion

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A theory that asserts tha tthe subjective experience of emotion is the awareness of one's own bodily reactions in the presence of certain arousing stimuli.

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facial feedback hypothesis

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the hypothesis that our facial movements feed back to our emotional experience, so that changes in our emotional experience.

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Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

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a theory of emotion which holds that a stimulus elicits an emotion by triggering a particular response in the brain (in the thalamus) whihc then causes both the physiological changes associated wiht the emotion and the emotional experience itself.

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Schachter-Singer theory of emotion

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a theory of emotion that holds that emotional experience results from the interpretation of bodily responses in the context of situational cues.

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antecedents

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in the context of emotion, antecedents are the precursors of emotion.

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appraisals

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the conscious or unconscious interpretations of a situation which determine how a person will respond emotionally to that situation.

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display rules

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deeply ingrained conventions, often obeyed without awareness, taht govern the facial expressions that may or may not be shown in particular contexts, set by their culture.

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emotion regulation

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the ability to control, diminish, or change one's own feelings.

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cognitive reappraisal

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a form of emotion regulation in which an individual changes her emotional response to a situation by altering her appraisal of that situation.

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suppression

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occurs when someone tries to decrease her eomotional resoponse by changing the meaning a situation has.