Soc Chapter 6

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Perception

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theprocess by which we gather and interpretinformation.

- Itis THE KEY TOHUMAN EXPERIENCE

-mediating link b/w us and our environment.

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1. THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS

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• Aworld of sensation--life fish in water.•Leftat the level of SENSATION our universe will have no continuity and stability.

•PERCEPTIONinvolves both "sensing" (sensation) and “interpretation”(Conceptualization).

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A.Sensation

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-->FIVE receptor vehicles bring us info from the NATURAL external world:

•(a)Vision (sight)

•(b)Audition (hearing)

•(c)Gustation (taste)

•(d)Olfaction (smell)

•(e)Tactile-kinesthesis (touch & sense of body position).

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B. Conceptualization

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• Conceptualization is the process thru which we group our perceptions intounits, categories, or classes, based upon certain similarities.

•Conceptualization helps us solve problems quickly and easily

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Conceptualization and PerceptualHypothesis

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(a)Sensory data suggest a hypothesis about the identity of a perceived EVENT orOBJECT.

(b)"Our perceptual organs then undertake to extract information for testingthe hypothesis."

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2. PERSON PERCEPTION

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• DEFN:The processes by which we come to know and thinkabout others’ characteristics, qualities, and inner states.

• Wemake inferences about people's inner states-- personality features, thoughts,and feelings.

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(I)Forming Impressions of others

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• When we meet other people we try to "size them up." We search for cues--SIGN-SIGNALS--that give us crucial info.

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Forming Impressions: (A)CENTRAL TRAITS

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Basically,we tend to infer favorabletraits from one or more favorablestimulus traits and unfavorabletraits from unfavorablestimulus traits

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Central Traits

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Thereare a number of dimensions:

• (1) Honesty-Dishonesty

• (2) Sociability-Unsociability

• (3) Happiness-Unhappiness

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Forming Impressions: (B) HALO EFFECTS

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==>When we know….

•Thus,physically attractive people are deemed to be cheerful and notmelancholy.

====>THE FOCUS HERE IS ON PEOPLE noton traits.

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Forming Impressions: (C) QUALITIES OF THE PERCEIVER

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==> The standards we use in assessing others depend MORE on our own unique character than upon the unique character of the person we are assessing.

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Forming Impressions: (D) NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION ("body language")

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-->Fatigue,drugs, etcaffect our behaviors& thoughts.

-->We can know…in TWO main ways:

• (1) Asking them.

• (2) Watching their nonverbal cues.

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Impressions:Nonverbal

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•We use visual cues most frequently attempts to detect deceit in others.

•Self-Presentation Tactics: used to enhance the impressions made on others.

•Emotion Work = attempts to change the quality or intensity of our feelings in order to match the occasion.

•SENTIMENTS = socially significant feelings.

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FOURExamples of Nonverbal Cues

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(1)Facial expressions

(2)Eye contact

(3)Body posture

(4)Gait

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Face

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=> The # of basic emotions represented by their own DISTINCT facial expressions =SIX: Happiness, Sadness, Surprise, Fear, Anger, and Disgust.

=>A single ANGRY face in a crowd of neutralfacial expressions is VERY, VERY easilynoticed.

=>Evidence suggests: WE ARE BIOLOGICALLY PREPARED TO RECOGNIZE ANGRYFACES.

=>If you enhance TENSION in the facial muscles that are normally active duringFROWNING, you will INTENSIFY your negative emotional experience

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Eyes

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=> A high level of gazing (not leering) is often seen as a sign of: LIKING

=> Avoiding eye contact: a sign of SHYNESS

=> Staring as a sign of: HOSTILITY.

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Body

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=> Body movements that carry a specific meaning in a given culture are known as: EMBLEMS. Examples: •OK sign.

=> Large #s of body movement--especially when one part of the body does something to another part--suggests: EMOTIONAL AROUSAL.

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Gait

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=>Zebrowitz-McArthur(1988) found that: A YOUTHFUL GAIT IS ASSOCIATED WITH MOSTLY POSITIVE TRAITS.

=>Persons with "a YOUTHFUL gait" are rated: sexier & happier.

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(II)Detecting Deception

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Major clues regarding a lie include:

(a) MICROEXPRESSIONS = fleeting facial expressions that last only a few tenths of a second--before people put their MASKS on..

(b) VERBAL CUES

• (i) SENTENCE REPAIRS = correcting oneself.

• (ii) VOICE PITCH

(c) EYE CONTACT

(d) ADAPTORS

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Detecting Deception...

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--Wetend to use visualcuesmost frequently in attempts to detect deceit in others.

--Wetend to use verbalcuesLEAST FREQUENTLY—because…we need to know a person’s normal way of talking….

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3. ATTRIBUTION

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Theprocess thru which we make inferences--i.e., judgments and interpretations--on ourownINTERNAL states and of other people based on OUTWARD BEHAVIOR.

IE, howwe infer the causes of behaviors.

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ATTRIBUTION: KEY THEORISTS:

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FritzHeider (1896– 1988) Austrian psychologist who moved to Univ ofKansas in 1948.

HaroldKelley (1921– 2003) American social psychologist who was at UCLA.BernardWeiner(born 1935) American social psychologist at UCLA. Interested in the emotionaland motivational entailments of academic success and failure.

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Causal Attribution

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Basicconcern: IS THIS BEHAVIOR CAUSED BY INTERNAL OR EXTERNALSTATES?

•Thatis, is it Dispositional or Situational?

(a)Dispositional Attribution

(b)Situational Attribution

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(a) Dispositional Attribution

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when we attribute behavior to internal factors. •DISPOSITIONS are relatively stable characteristics of a person--such as personality traits, attitudes, and abilities.

-->Based on past experience, we usually attribute a person's successful performance to: INTERNAL CAUSES.

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(b) Situational Attribution

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whenwe attribute the behavior to externalfactors.

-->Whenbehavior isshaped by EXTERNAL causes, it is extremely difficult for an observer to inferthat person's motives or traits.

-->Ingeneral, we assume that a person is laughing dueto: EXTERNAL CAUSES

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Attribution...

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==> We are likely to infer that a person's behavior reflects his or her actual characteristics when the behavior is: LOW IN SOCIAL DESIRABILITY AND OCCURRED BY CHOICE.

==> Men are more likely than women to blame their partner for an unsatisfactory sexual experience.

==> Couples experiencing marital problems tend to attribute their partner's negative actions to: the partner's lasting traits.

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Self-defeating attributions

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maybe a factor in DEPRESSION

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SELF-HANDICAPPING

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our efforts to provide an excuse for failurewhich may occur in the future.

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AttributionErrors

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(1) Fundamental

(2) Focus of attention

(3) Actor-observer difference

(4) Motivational

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(1) Fundamental

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overestimating dispositional factors.

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(2) Focus of attention

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overestimating the role of whomever or whatever we focus on.

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(3) Actor-observer difference

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actors blame situation while observers blame actors.

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(4) Motivational

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what we see often depends on our desires/motivations to enhance our self-esteem, etc..

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Harold KELLEY'S (1967) ATTRIBUTION THEORY

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--Asophisticated theory of processes through which we seek to understand thecauses of others’ behaviors.

Determineswhether a behavior iscaused by the actor, object, or context.