Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
150 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Sociology |
The scientific study of social behavior and human groups |
|
|
Intersectionality |
Cross between two social forms (race, gender, sexuality, etc.) |
|
|
THE SOCIAL IMAGINATION: C. Wright Mills |
- Gives us an awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society ex. You were cloned at birth; clones can change over time if they were sent to different continents |
|
|
Sociology as a Science |
- Sociology is a social science - Focuses on how society shapes attitudes and behaviors |
|
|
Sociology v. Common Sense |
Common Sense : Cohabitation before marriage reduces risk of divorce because people test things out Sociology: Cohabitation before marriage neither increases or decreases the risk of divorce |
|
|
Sociological Theory |
Use of theory to guide explanations of social behavior |
|
|
Theory |
A set of statements that explain problems, actions, or behaviors - Can be predictive or explanatory |
|
|
Qualities of a Good Theory |
- Testability/Falsability - Parsimony (simple, distilled statements to create theory) - Applicability (to the real world) |
|
|
Macro-Level |
Focus on how big theories can affect large groups/institutions Focus on how big theories can affect large groups/institutions- Functionalists v. Conflict Theorists - Functionalists v. Conflict Theorists |
|
|
Micro-Level |
Focus on how theories affect small groups - Symbolic Interactionists |
|
|
Functionalism |
Sees society as an organism in which each part contributes to survival (Macro-Level) - Every part of society helps to maintain the system as a whole - See what purpose something serves in society |
|
|
Conflict Theory
|
Sees the world in continual struggle (Macro-level) - Tensions between groups based on who has resources ($$$, political power) - The elite have power over weaker groups; they will do what is necessary to maintain that power |
|
|
Symbolic Interactionism |
Symbols are key to seeing how we view the world - Symbols have shared meaning - Every symbol requires a different behavior - Society rests on these shared meanings (nothing of social importance could exist without them) - Meanings change through interaction ex. Religion: communion, cross symbol, Language |
|
|
Education as a Social Institution |
Functionalists: Society functions best when we have people to fill jobs at different skill levels. College is a gatekeeper. Conflict Theorists: College is a way that the upper class maintains power and resources over the working class. Symbolic Interactionalists: People used to go to college to learn. Now, people go to college to get a job (change meaning of education). |
|
|
Social Institution Questions |
Functionalist: How do the institutions of society contribute to social stability? Conflict Theorist: How do privileged groups maintain advantages and subordinate groups increase theirs, often causing social change in the process? Symbolic Interactionalist: How do individuals communicate to make their social settings meaningful? |
|
|
Socialization |
The process of learning and internalizing the values, beliefs, and norms of our social group - Major agents: Family, School, Peers, Mass Media - The way culture is passed on through generations |
|
|
Quantitative Research |
Translates the social world into numbers that can be studied mathematically (ex. Census) |
|
|
Qualitative Research |
Uses non-numerical data like texts, interviews, photos, and recordings to help us understand social life (ex. Anne Frank's Diary) |
|
|
Quantitative v. Qualitative |
Quantitative: - Does not use statistical methods - More interpretive, shows more nuance Qualitative: - Uses statistical methods - Provides no statistical data |
|
|
The Scientific Method |
Used to acquire knowledge that emphasizes collective data |
|
|
Deductive Reasoning |
General Theory --> Research Question (Hypothesis) --> Research Design --> Data Collection --> Data Analysis --> Conclusions |
|
|
Inductive Reasoning |
Data Collection --> Data Analysis --> Conclusions --> General Theory --> Research Question (Hypothesis) --> Research Design |
|
|
The Research Process |
- Begins with curiosity -- defines a problem - Moves to the library (literature review) - Leads to a hypothesis |
|
|
Causal Logic |
Independent Variable (ex. Level of Education) --> Dependent Variable (ex. Level of Income) |
|
|
How do we prove casuality? |
- Observe a correlation (positive or negative) - The cause (Independent Variable) must come BEFORE the effect (Dependent Variable) - Rule out spurious variables |
|
|
Correlation |
A relationship between two variables |
|
|
Causation |
A relationship in which one variable causes another variable to change |
|
|
Spurious Causation |
Two or more variables are not related to each other, but related in the presence of a third factor ex. # of firefighters --> Damage caused Size of Fire (Spuriousness) |
|
|
Scientific Method ex. Social Isolation in the U.S. |
1. Question: Are we more or less connected than 20 years ago? 2. Review: What other people have found 3. Hypothesis: (+) social media and globalization --> (+) connectedness and (-) isolation 4. Research Design: Nationally Representative Survey 5. Collect Data: General Social Survey 6. Analyze Data: Multi-Variate Regression Analysis (quantitative) 7. Conclusion: # of people whom others discuss important matters drop by 33% |
|
|
Ethnography/Participation Observation |
Ethnography: studying people in their own environments in order to understand the meanings to give to their activities Participation Observation: the researcher both observes and become a member in a social setting |
|
|
Ethnography Steps |
1. The researcher participates in and observes a setting. 2. The researcher makes a written account (field notes) of what goes on there. |
|
|
Ethnographers |
- Aim to provide a thick description of the setting they observe - Incorporates systematic observation, interviews, and first-hand experiences - Usually qualitative and inductive |
|
|
Interviews |
- Involves direct face-to-face contact with respondents - Generate large amounts of qualitative data - Uses open-ended questions or close-ended questions |
|
|
Interview Steps |
1. A researcher identifies the target population of interest, then takes a sample to interview |
|
|
Open-Ended Questions |
Lets respondents talk as much as they'd like |
|
|
Close-Ended Questions |
Gives respondents a choice of answers to choose from |
|
|
Surveys (Quantitative) |
Questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents from a target population |
|
|
Probability Sampling |
Obtains a sample that reflects the characteristics of the target population |
|
|
Characteristics of a Target Population |
|
|
|
Existing Sources |
Any data that has already been collected by earlier resources and is available for future research |
|
|
Experiments |
Formal tests of specific variables and effects that are performed in a setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled |
|
|
Experimental Group |
Participants that receive the "treatment" |
|
|
Control Group |
Used to compare to the experimental group |
|
|
Field Experiment |
Go into the real world and research |
|
|
Code of Ethics |
Helps researchers avoid bias and adhere to professional standards and to protect respondents from |
|
|
Institutional Review Board (IRB) |
A group of scholars within a university that reviews and accepts their colleagues' ideas |
|
|
Reliability |
A measurement is reliable if repeating the measurement gives the same result |
|
|
Two ways to measure reliability |
- Use measures that have proved sound in past studies - Have a variety of people gather the data to make certain results |
|
|
Validity |
The degree to which a measurement accurately measures a concept - Researchers use more than one measure for a particular concept - If two or more than one measures of a concept give similar results, the measurements are likely valid |
|
|
Which Method to Use? |
Survey: More social desirability bias Observation: More accuracy |
|
|
Culture |
The entire way of life for a group of people Includes: Language, Standards of Beauty, Food, Styles of Dress, and Music Culture is learned. It is passed down from one generation to the next through communication, not genetics. |
|
|
Enthocentrism |
People use their own culture as a standard to evaluate another group or individual, leading to their view, that other cultures than their own are abnormal. |
|
|
Cultural Relativism |
The process of understanding other cultures on their own terms, rather than judging according to one's own culture |
|
|
Signs/Symbols |
Used to meaningfully represent something else ex. Traffic Signal or Product Logo |
|
|
Gestures |
Signs that we make with our body, such as hand gestures and facial expressions ex. Hoodie is a piece of fabric used to stay warm. Symbolically, its meaning ranges from a status symbol to a symbol injustice |
|
|
Language |
A system of communication using vocal sounds, gestures, and written symbols It shapes our communication but our perceptions and how we see things |
|
|
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis |
Idea that language structures thought and that ways of looking at the world are embedded in language, is based on this premise - Cultural Dialect, Code Switching |
|
|
Values |
Shard beliefs about a group considers worthwhile or desirable; they guide the creation of norms |
|
|
Norms |
Rules regarding what kinds of behavior are acceptable and appropriate within a culture (ex. chewing with mouth full, burping in public) |
|
|
Folkway |
Loosely enforced norm that involves common customs, practices, or procedures that ensure smooth social interaction and acceptance |
|
|
More (More-ayy) |
Carries moral significance, is closely related to the core values of a group, and often involves severe repercussions for violators |
|
|
Taboo |
A norm engrained so deeply that even thinking about violating it evokes strong feelings of disgust, horror, or revoltion for some people |
|
|
Sanctions |
Positive or negative reactions to the ways people follow or disobey norms, including rewards for conformity and punishments for norm violators - Help to establish social control, the formal and informal mechanisms used to increase conformity to values and norms and thus increase social cohesion |
|
|
Multiculturalism |
Values diverse racial, ethnic, national, and linguistic backgrounds and thus encourages the retention of cultural differences within society, rather than assimilation |
|
|
Dominant Culture |
The values, norms, and practices of the group within society that is most powerful in terms of wealth, prestige, status, and influence |
|
|
Subculture |
A group within society that is differentiated by its distinctive values, norms, and lifestyle |
|
|
Counterculture |
A group within society that openly rejects, and may actively oppose, society's values and norms |
|
|
Nature v. Nurture Debate |
Are we the people that we are because of our genetics or our socialization? This debate asks which factor determines individual behaviors and traits. Both sides play a role in making us who we are. |
|
|
Sigmund Freud (Psychoanalysis) |
Developed the idea of the subconscious and unconscious mind, which he believed control most of our drives, impulses, thoughts, and behaviors. |
|
|
Charles Cooley (Looking-glass self) |
Believes that the sense of self depends on seeing oneself reflected in interactions with others The looking-glass self refers to the notion that the self develops through our perception of others' evaluations and appraisals of us. |
|
|
George Herbert Mead (Three Stages of Self) |
Believed that the self was created through social interaction and that this process started in childhood Three Stages of Self: 1. Preparatory Stage: birth --> 2 years old 2. Play Stage: 2 years --> 6years old 3. Game Stage: 6 years --> 8 years old |
|
|
Erving Goffman (Dramaturgy) |
Meaning is constructed through interaction with others. Dramaturgy: compares social interaction to the theater, where individuals take on roles and act them out for an audience. Impression Management: Saw social life as a game, where we work to control the impressions others have of us. |
|
|
W.I Thomas (The Thomas Theorem) |
Thomas Theorem: If people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences." We encounter ambiguous situations everyday; many meanings are possible the way we define each situation, then, becomes its reality. |
|
|
Socialization |
Process of learning and internalizing the values, beliefs, and norms of our social group |
|
|
Resocialization |
Process of replacing previously learned norms and values with new ones as a part of a transition in life. A dramatic form of this takes place in a total institution (prison cell, mental hospital) that cuts off individuals from the rest of society to they can control their lives. |
|
|
Status |
A position in society that comes with a set of expectations |
|
|
Ascribed Status |
Status we are born with that is unlikely to change
|
|
|
Achieved Status |
Statues we have earned through our individual effort or that is imposed by others. |
|
|
Master Status |
Status that overrides all others and affects all other statuses that we posses. |
|
|
Roles |
Set of behaviors expected from a particular status |
|
|
Role Conflict |
Roles associated with one status clash with the roles associated with a different status (ex. Being a college student and a single mother) |
|
|
Role Strain |
Roles associated with a single status clash (ex. College student and fraternity member) |
|
|
Role Exit |
Dropping one role to pursue another role |
|
|
Emotions |
Though we tend to believe our emotions are highly personal and individual, there are social patterns in our emotional responses (socially constructed) |
|
|
Socially-Constructed Emotional Responses |
Emotions are influenced by social and cultural context (ex. Everyone is expected to be sad at a funeral) |
|
|
Emotion Work |
Process of evoking, suppressing, or managing feelings to create a public display of emotion (ex. Waiter suppresses emotions when talking to angry customer) |
|
|
Group |
Collection of people who share some identity with one another, and interact with each other |
|
|
Social Groups |
Provide the norms, values, and rules that guide people's lives |
|
|
Crowd |
A temporary gathering of people in a public place, whose members do not identify with each other and will not remain in contact with each other |
|
|
Aggregate |
Collection of people who share a physical location, but do not have lasting social relation (ex. a crowd) |
|
|
Primary Groups |
Involve the most face-to-face interaction and cooperation and the deepest feelings of belonging (ex. Family) |
|
|
Secondary Groups |
Larger and Less personal. They organize around a specific activity or task (ex. Classmates) |
|
|
Social Network |
Web of direct and indirect ties connecting an individual to other people |
|
|
Anomie (Separate form Groups) |
Groups provide values, norms, and rules that guide people's lives. Is it possible that the world makes people disconnected from their groups and creates anomie (normlessness)? |
|
|
Group Dynamics |
Patterns of interaction between groups and individuals This includes the ways groups: - Form and Fall Apart - Influence Members |
|
|
Dyad (Two Members) |
Smallest possible social group. It is unstable because of the small size (easy to break). |
|
|
Triad (Three Members) |
It is stable, but more relationships to manage. |
|
|
In-group |
Group that a person identifies with and feels loyal towards |
|
|
Out-group |
Group that a person feels opposition, rivalry, or hostility towards |
|
|
Reference Group |
Group that provides a standard of comparison against which people evaluate themselves |
|
|
Group Cohesion |
Sense of solidarity or loyalty that individuals feel toward a group to which they belong |
|
|
Groupthink |
Tendency of very cohesive groups to enforce a high degree of conformity among members, creating a demand for unanimous agreement |
|
|
Social Influence (Peer-Pressure) |
Influence of one's fellow group members on individual attitudes and behaviors - We conform to group norms to gain acceptance |
|
|
Compliance |
The mildest form of conformity; actions to gain reward or avoid punishment |
|
|
Identification |
Conformity to establish or maintain a relationship with a person or group |
|
|
Internalization |
The strongest type of conformity; an individual adopts the beliefs or actions of a group and makes them his or her own ex. Solomon Asch's Conformity Studies |
|
|
Bureaucracy |
Type of Secondary group designed to perform tasks efficiently - They are impersonal but efficient, and they provide many basic necessities |
|
|
McDonaldization (George Ritzer) |
Spread of bureaucratic nationalization and the resulting increase in both efficiency and dehumanization |
|
|
Six Characteristics of Bureaucracies |
1. Specialization 2. Technical Competence 3. Hierarchy 4. Rules and Regulations 5. Impersonality 6. Formal Written Communication |
|
|
Dysfunctions of Bureaucracies |
- Red Tape - Lack of communication between units - Bureaucratic Alienation - Bureaucratic Incompetence: The Peter Principle |
|
|
What is social about emotions? |
Emotions are spontaneous and uncontrollable than we commonly believe |
|
|
Characteristics of an Emotion |
- Psychophysiological experience - Directed (ex. Anger towards something/someone - Limited Duration - Intense/Mild - Individually experienced - Socially Patterned |
|
|
Measuring Emotions |
- Self reports - Physiological - Facial thermography - Brain Activity - Behavioral |
|
|
How Do We Measure Emotions? |
- Ekman's facial acting coding system |
|
|
Emotions Revealed Video |
- All human emotions stem from our culture - Six Basic Emotions: Joy, Anger, Surprise, Disgust, Contempt, Sadness - Each emotion signals the body for a specific reaction |
|
|
Nature Argument in Emotions Revealed Video |
People who haven't seen Western Culture still know the basic emotions |
|
|
Social Stratification |
Division of society into groups arranged in a social hiearchy - Every society has a form of stratification; societies stratify people according to a variety of criteria (race, class, gender) |
|
|
Social Inequality |
Unequal distribution of wealth, power, or prestige among members of a society |
|
|
Slavery |
Most extreme form of social stratification; it is base don the legal ownership of slaves |
|
|
Caste System |
A form of social stratification in which status is determined by one's family history and background and cannot be changed |
|
|
Apartheid |
System of segregation of racial and ethnic groups |
|
|
Social Class (Socioeconomic Status) |
A system of stratification base don access to resources, such as wealth, property, power, and prestige. |
|
|
Intersectionality |
Identifies how different categories of inequality (ex, class, race, and gender) intersect |
|
|
The Upper Class |
- The wealthiest people in a class system - Possess most wealth of the country - Comprise 1% of the U.S. population |
|
|
The Upper Middle Class |
- Professionals and managers - Makes of 14% of population in the U.S. |
|
|
Middle Class |
- Includes "white-collar" workers - Has a broad range of incomes - Makes up about 30% of the U.S. Population |
|
|
The working (lower-middle) class |
- Includes blue collar or service industry workers - Less likely to have college degrees - Makes up about 30% of the U.S. population |
|
|
The Working Poor |
-Likely work manual and service jobs and seasonal employment - Makes up 13% of the U.S. population |
|
|
The Underclass |
- Likely unemployed or part-time employment - Makes up 12% of the U.S. population |
|
|
Karl Marx (Conflict Theory) |
He believed that there were two main social classes in capitalist societies. The classes would remain divided and social inequality will grow. Two main social classes: - Capitalists (bourgeoisie): Owned the means of production - Workers (proletariat): Sold their labor for wages |
|
|
Max Weber (cultural factors similar to Marx) |
He argued that class status was made up of three components: - Wealth (or prestige) - Power - Prestige ex. A judge has money (wealth), lots of power (power) over court decisions (precedents); prestigious job as a judge (prestige) |
|
|
Social Class: Structural-Functional Theory |
Suggests that the system of stratification taht has emerged is functional to society in many ways: - Certain roles are more important for the functioning of society, and these roles may be more difficult to full, so more incentive is needed - Greater rewards are necessary for work that requires more training or skill |
|
|
Social Class: Postmodern Theory (Pierre Bourdieu and Social Reproduction) |
The tendency for social-class status to be passed down from one generation to the next. This happens because each generation acquires cultural capital (tastes, habits, expectations, skills, etc.), which hinders or helps us in society |
|
|
Symbolic Interactionists |
Examine the way we use status differences to categorize ourselves and others |
|
|
Erving Goffman (Socioeconomic Status) |
Our clothing, speech, gestures, possessions, friends, and activities, provide more about our socioeconomic status |
|
|
Social Mobility |
The movement of individuals or groups within the hierarchical system of social classes |
|
|
Closed System
|
System in which there is very little opportunity to move forward in society |
|
|
Open System |
System in which there is more opportunity to move forward in society |
|
|
Intergenerational Mobility |
Movement between social classes that occurs from one generation to the next |
|
|
Intragenerational Mobility |
Movement between social classes that occurs over the course of an individual's lifetime - It is possible to move down in society |
|
|
Horizontal social mobility |
Occupational movement of individuals or groups within a social class |
|
|
Vertical Social Mobility |
Movement between social classes and, depending on the direction, is often called either upward mobility or downward mobility |
|
|
Poverty |
- The federal poverty line is used to determine who should be categorized as poor - Most people living in poverty are not not unemployed. The fact is evident in the term "working poor" |
|
|
Absolute Deprivation |
Objective measure of poverty that is defined by the inability to meet minimal standards for food, shelter, clothing, or healthcare |
|
|
Relative Deprivation |
Relational measure of poverty based on the standards of living - People are considered poor if their standard of living is less than the other members of society |
|
|
Culture of Poverty |
Learned attitudes than can develop among poor communities and lead the poor to accept their fate rather than attempt to improve their situation |
|
|
Invisibility of Poverty |
Residential Segregation, political disenfranchisement, and the use of law enforcement to control the homeless, can make poverty invisible to many Americans |
|
|
The American Dream |
The ideology that anyone can achieve material success if her/she works hard enough - Explains and justifies economic inequality in our system - Has been criticized for legitimizing stratification by implying that everyone has the same opportunity to get ahead |
|
|
Stereotypes |
An unreliable generalization about all members of a group that does not recognize individual differences |
|
|
Stereotype Threat |
Being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group |
