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57 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Define a suture |
Fibrous immovable e.g. skull short fibers |
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Define a syndesmosis |
Longer fibers e.g. Tibia and fibula, amphiarthroses and fibrous |
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Define a gomphosis |
Immovable fibrous e.g. teeth |
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Define an synchondrosis |
Sternum and first rib have hyaline cartilage Cartilaginous Synarthroses |
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Symphysis define |
Vertebrae, fibrocartilage that is amphiarthroses and cartilaginous |
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What five components do synovial joints have |
Separated by fluid filled cavity Articular cartilage covers bone ends Articular cartilage is outer fibrous joint and inner is synovial membrane Joint cavity is filled with synovial fluid and joint Ligaments enforce the fibrous capsule to prevent bone slipping from the joint |
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What are the steps in the sliding filament theory |
Actin and myosin can only bind if calcium is present, binds to troponin that pulls tropomyosin from myosin binding sites ATP bonds and prevents actin binding to myosin ATP is hydrolysed to ADP and pi cause the myosin head to be pulled back Myosin binds to actin and then phosphate is released Myosin had moved back to the original position in a power stroke and ADP is released Actin slides over myosin towards the centre of the sarcomere New atp binds to repeat process |
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How is the anterior and posterior pituitary connected to the hypothalamus |
Anterior by capillaries and regulated by hormones Posterior by nerves and secretes and stores hormones |
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What are the three classes of hormones synthesised by the anterior pituitary |
Somatrotophic single polypeptide chain e.g. GH and prolactin somatotrops and lactotrophs respectively Corticotrophic related peptide hormones from a single percurser e.g corticotrophic from corticotrophic Glycoprotein hormones have a common alpha chain with variable beta peptide chain e.g. TSH and TSH from thyrotropin and gondatrophs respectively |
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What are the three classes of hormones |
Peptide e.g. insulin and glucagon. AA derived e.g. adrenaline receptors activate intracellular signalling pathways Steroid e.g. cortisol receptors activate gene transcription on nucleus |
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What are acinar cells |
Exocrine portions of pancreas where digestive enzymes are located |
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How is thyroglobulin converted to release thyroxine into the blood |
Thyroglobulin is secreted into the follicle and iodinated, then taken back up and cleaved to release thyroxine into the blood |
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How do T3 and T4 bind and what do they cause |
Bind to nuclear receptors and cause transcription of specific genes that increase respiration, proteinsynthesis and cell growth |
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What are whole body effects of T3 and T4 |
Increases metabolic rate, food intake and thermogenesis |
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How does PTH increase blood plasma calcium levels |
Calcium receptors on chief cells in parathyroid detect low calcium Increases PTH secretion Increases 1,2,5 dihydroxycholecalciferol by kidneys so more calcium absorption in gut Increases calcium reabsorption and decreased phosphate resorption in the kidneys Increase plasma calcium |
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What are the other two substances that affect calcium levels |
Vitamin d and calcitonin from the thyroid |
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What does the adrenal cortex the synthesise |
Steroid hormones e.g. cortisol in response to hormones e.g. acth |
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What does the adrenal medulla synthesise |
Catecholamines e.g. adenine in response to nerve stimulation |
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How does adrenaline affect the short term stress response |
Flight or fight |
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Where is adrenaline stored |
Chromaffin cells in adrenal medulla as vesicles |
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Where does adrenaline act in the body and how is it released |
Adrenergic receptors Splanchnic sympathetic nerves cause the release of acetylcholine Binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on membrane of chromaffin and depolarised membrane so calcium influxes into the cell Adrenaline granules fuse with membrane and releases adrenaline into the bloodstream |
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How is ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone derived |
From POMC percurser protein proteolytically cleaved to produce hormones including endorphins |
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How does cortisol effect the body |
Increased vascular tone (increases blood vessel constriction) Immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory Increase fat cell lipolysis so mobilises fatty acids and glycerol Liver increases glucose synthesis and enzyme activity |
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What are the three dangerous long term effects of cortisol |
Wasting Increased infection risk High blood pressure |
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How do parietal cells produce HCL |
Sodium proton pump in apical membrane pumps proton out for potassium in using atp Protons are from the dissociation of water, hydroxide ions rect with carbonic acid to carbonate. Transported out by cloride antiporters and chloride then leave apical site( near lumen) by symport of potassium or chloride channel |
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How to chief cells release pepsinogen |
Store as membrane bound granules, released when food enters the stomach |
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What do entero-endocrine cells do |
Secrete gastrin into the bloodstream which effects GI Tracy function e.g. more proton pumps in apical membrane of partial so more HCl can be secreted |
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How are fatty acids or monoglycerides absorbed |
Diffusion, reassembled to triglycerides, combined with other kids and proteins and packaged to chylomicrons, exocytosed and absorbed by lacteals on lymph vessels the reach circulation |
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How are peptides taken up by the cell |
Sodium potassium ATPase, sodium leaves and potassium enters Aas tsken up via cotransport with sodium Small peptides taken up via cotransport with protons Protons removed by sodium entering down concentration gradient, removes protons So protons enter and small peptides leave Large peptides are transcytosed |
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Define epidemiology |
The frequency, distribution and determinants of disease and other health related conditions |
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What are cholera symptoms and bacteria causes it |
Watery diarrheoea, vomiting, muscle cramps Vibrio cholerae |
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How is COPD diagnosed |
Post bronchodilator fev1/fvc is <0.7 Prone to false positives Overestimated in middle aged and elderly |
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How is COPD treated |
Bronchodilator relaxes smooth muscles mediated by the B2 adrenergic receptors Adrenaline acts on these to relazlx smooth muscle Short acting agonists e.g.salbutamol or long acting agonists in B2 adrenergic receptors e.g. salmeterol |
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What is the mechanism for muscle relaxation at B2 adrenergic receptors |
B2 adrenergic receptors are g protein coupled receptors and activation of these activated adenylyl cyclase Converts ATP to camp Camo acts downstream to mediate smooth muscle relaxation |
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What is the filtration barrier |
Fenestrated endothelial cells, basement membrane, gaps between podocytes |
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What is the myogenic response in autoregulation |
Blood pressure increases, the cation channels open which depolarises the membrane so calcium channels open leading to the influx so smooth muscle contacts and narrows tube so filtration not affected |
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What does the tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism do in autoregulation |
Macula densa cells in the ascending loop of Henle sense tubule flow by sensing ion concentration of the arteriole Blood pressure increases ion flow temporarily as ions can't be absorbed, paracrine are secreted to contrict afferent arteriole |
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What is the reabsorption mechanism |
Sodium potassium atp pump on basal membrane, sodium into blood and potassium in Sodium enters from tubule down concentration gradient with glucose/AA/ some ions in cotransport on the apical membrane |
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What does angiotensin II produce |
Stimulates aldestrone production in the adrenal gland so more sodium is reabsorbed |
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How is low sodium detected in the blood and what is secreted |
Low sodium by macula densa cells that stimulate renin production by juxtaglomerular cells |
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Define Boyles law |
Pressure is inversely proportional to volume |
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How are the lungs held open |
Negative intrapleural pressure in the pleural cavity Parital pleura lines inner ribcage Visceral lines lung Chest pulls outwards Lungs collapse by elastic recoil so pulls the other way |
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What happens if the pleural cavity is punctured |
Air flows in until same pressure as the environment so lungs collapse |
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What are the two factors affecting pulmonary ventilation |
Elastic recoil and airway resistance |
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How does elastic recoil affect ventilation |
Ease the lungs rebound after stretching Determined by elastic fibres and alevolar surface tension, is reduced by surfactant released by type two alveolar cells |
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How is oxygen concentration in the plasma increased |
Binds to haemoglobin |
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***** law of diffusion |
(A/t).D.(p1-p2) Area/thickness Diffusion coefficient Pp |
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What is inspiratory capacity |
Quiet breath+inspiratory reserve volume |
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Vital capacity |
Forced expiration to forced inspiration |
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Residual volume |
Volume in lungs after max exp |
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What are the two types of lung diseases |
Obstructive and restrictive |
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Example of obstructive |
Airway obstruction increases resistance COPD Is cause by smoke or pollution Emphysema is the destruction of alveolar walls and loss of elasticity Chronic bronchitis is inflammation, Xs mucus and chronic productive cough Air trapping Dyspnea and freqnet infections
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Example of restrictive |
Limits compliance pulmonary fibrosis Unknown cause Scar tissue in alveoli increases diffusion disatnace and stiffness |
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What is chloride shift and equation |
CO2 diffuses into blood, is dissolved in plasma, binds to amino of haemoglobin or reacts with water to form h2CO3 Dissociates to protons and carbonate Carbonate leaves as chloride enters Proton binds to haemoglobin |
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How is intrinsic rhythmic activity generated in repsiratory muscles |
Pons and medulla groups of neurones in the brainstem |
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How do peripheral chemoreceptors sense changes in po2 |
In carotid body, glomus cells release neurotransmitter at low po2 to stimulate sensory neurones that transmits signals to respiratory centre and increase ventilation Low po2 cause k+ channels to close Cell depolarises and causes calcium voltage gated channels to open Influx causes exocytosis of the neurotransmitter Bind to receptor on sensory neurone, signals to medullary centres of brain to increase ventilation |
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How do central chemoreceptors detect pH changes |
Neurones on ventral surface of medulla tepsond to changed in cerebrospinal fluid so lower the pH Less protons to buffer so larger effect Same mechanism protons produced by carbon dioxide and water |
