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484 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Before assessing a radiograph for any abnormalities, what must you first apprise?
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The radiographic quality
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What lateral view(s) are taken routinely?
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Right and Left lateral
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Why is it important to obtain both lateral views?
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During lateral recumbency the lung on the dependent side is partially collapsed and lacks aeration
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Which frontal view is most comfortable foe the dog or cat?
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Dorso-ventral (DV)
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DV is also safest for animals in what condition?
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Respiratory distress
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In regards to the heart, why is a DV view preferred?
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Heart lies in its natural position
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What structure are better seen in the VD view?
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Lung fields
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When is the VD preferred over the DV?
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When minor pulmonary changes are suspected
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What is the main use of horizontal beam projections?
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Evaluate a pneumothorax (and fluid distribution)
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In general, the radiographic exposure should allow visualization of which structures?
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The relatively lucent lung fields and the opaque heart
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On the lateral view, pulmonary blood vessels should be seen where?
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Out to the periphery of the lung
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The DV/VD views should be sufficiently penetrated to see what major structures?
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-carina
-main bronchi -main caudal lobe pulmonary vessels |
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What type pf KvP is used when obtaining thoracic radiographs?
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High kVp
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What technique is used to view slightly over-exposed radiographs?
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A bright light
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If a patient is not completely cooperative for radiographic positioning what must you consider?
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Chemical restraint
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How should the forelimbs be positioned on the lateral radiograph?
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Drawn forward
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Chest rads are taken on full inspiration. On a lat view, the diaphragm should be see at what vertebral level?
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T12-T13
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How do you judge good inspiration on a DV/VD view?
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Lowrs ribs are widely spaced and lung border bulges into the inner-costal spaces.
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When would expiratory views be indicated?
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To check for air trapping
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How do you reduce the chances of blur from motion on a radiograph?
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Use the shortest time (highest mA) available
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A grid will improve radiographic quality and should be used on body parts greater than what thickness?
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12-14 cm
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Proper collimation on a chest radiograph would include what, caudally?
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The cranial abdomen
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What is the cornerstone to radiographic interpretation?
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Routine systematic approach
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Radiographically, at the thoracic inlet, the mediastinum blends with what other structures?
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The soft tissue planes of the caudal neck
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In what order should the thoracic structures be evaluated?
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-thoracic boundaries
-mediastinal structures -heart -lungs |
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How should the boney structures of the thorax be evaluated?
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-ribs: examine individually
-examine sternabrae -thoracic vertebrae should each be checked |
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On the right lateral, what is the position of the crus of the diagphragm?
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The weigh of the cranial abd pushes the right crus forward with the vena cava.
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On the left lateral, what is the position of the crus of the diaphragm?
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The left crus is advanced by the weight of the gastric fundus, which can be seen immediately behind it.
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What else should be evaluated in regards to the thoracic boundaries?
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The contents of the cranial abdomen
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What structures are contained in the cranial mediastinum?
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-trachea
-esophagus -cranial vena cava -brachycephalic trunk -lymph nodes -thymus -fat |
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In young animals, what structure might be seen in the DV/VD view as the sail sign?
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Thymus
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Is the esophagus visible on the DV/VD view?
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Yes, with a small amount of air in it.
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Where is the trachea seen on the DV/VD view?
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To the right of midline
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What is the typical course of the trachea as seen on the lateral view?
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Variable, tend to diverge from the vertebral column between the thoracic inlet to the carina (approx 5th ICS)
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What are the only normally visible structures in the caudal mediastinum?
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-aorta
-cadual vena cava |
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On the DV/VD where is the aorta located?
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Superimposed on the heart shadow, to the left of the midline
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Grossly, the caudal vena cava should be no wider than what structure?
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A thoracic vertebrae length
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What oblique linear shadow can be seen in the left caudal thorax on the DV/VD view?
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Caudal mediastinal fold
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In cats, what structure separates the dorso-caudal lung lobes from the vertebral column?
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Thick, sub-lumbar muscles
(don't confuse as free pleural fluid |
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What 2 structures comprise the heart shadow?
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The heart and pericardium
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The heart is widely variable in shape and size depending on the conformation of the thorax. What radiographic technique factor can make the heart appear larger?
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Poor inspiration
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On the lateral view, the cranial border of the heart represents which portion of the heart?
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Right ventricle and right atrium
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Most of the caudal border of the heart shadow, on the lat, represents which portion of the heart?
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Left ventricle
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Which heart structures are seen on the lat view and occupy the dorso-caudal segments?
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Left atrium and pulmonary veins
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On the DV?VD views, what are the clock-face positions of the
aorta main pulmonary artery left auricle left ventricle right ventricle and atrium |
aorta- 12:00
main pulmonary artery- 1:00 left auricle1:30 -3:00 left ventricle 3:00-7:00 right ventricle and atrium 7:00- 12:00 |
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What objective method has been developed to asses over heart size in dogs?
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Vertebral Heart Score (VHS)
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On which view is the VHS caculated?
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Lateral
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Combined, the length of the heart length and width are compared to what?
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The vertebral column starting at the cranial border of L4
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As a guide, the VHS should be in what range?
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8.5-10.5 vertebrae in length
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What position does the feline heart lie on the lat view?
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More horizontal
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What shape is the feline heart on the DV/VD view?
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oval to triangular
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Is the VHS used in cats?
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No
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How many lobes does the left lung consist of?
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Cranial (cr and cd segments)
Caudal |
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Name the lobes of the right lung
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Cranial
Middles Caudal Accessory |
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Which lobe forms the shadow of the caudal mediastinal fold?
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The accessory lobe of the right lung- lies partly on the left at and is near the caudal left lob
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What appearance does the left cranial lobe tend to have?
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Curls to the right side, taking the ventral portion of the cranial mediastinum with it
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In most dogs and in some cats, how are some larger bronchi made radiologically visible?
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Mineral deposits in the bronchi wall
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Bronchial walls made be seen in cross-section when surrounded by what?
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Soft tissue cuffs
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What is the shape of the left and right main stem bronchi on the DV/VD view?
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Inverted Y
|
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The the cranial lung lobes, the lobar arteries lie where in position to the veins?
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Dorsal (main lobar bronchi between them)
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What structures are responsible for the complex background network of soft tissue densities throughout the lung fields?
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Peripheral pulmonary vessels
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Skin folds may mimic what condition on a DV/VD view?
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Pneumothroax
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when evaluating the chest wall, irregularities of the costal cartilages and sternabare ( past trauma) may resemble what pathology?
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Active proliferative or destructive changes
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Accumulation of fat in the ventral thorax and pericardium could be confused as what?
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Free air or free fluid
|
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Soft tissue nodules have to be what size to be considered significant?
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close to 1 cm
|
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In the chest, composite shadows of what structures should not be mistaken for localized lesions?
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Ribs, vessels and mineralized bronchial walls
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What are osteomas that may be seen in chest rads?
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In older dogs, small deposits of bone on the pleura on in the lung parenchyma
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Prolonged lateral recumbency may lead to what condition in the dependent lung?
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Hypostatic collapse
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What type of spaces are the pleural cavity and mediastinum?
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Potential spaces
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How are pathologic changes demonstrated in a radiograph?
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By displacement of recognizable thoracic structures from their normal position
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What imaging modality can help to visualize disorders of the pleural cavity that bring soft tissue or fluid lesion in contact with the thoracic wall?
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U/S
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Air in the pleural cavity usually affects which side?
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Both, mediastinum is easily ruptured
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On a lateral recumbent view, where does the free air go?
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to the upper hemithorax, collapse of thje dependent lung reduces its volume
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In the case of a pneumothorax, lateral view, what position does the heart assume?
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Looses supports and slides towards the lowest point in the chest
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Where is free air seen on a lat view?
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Between the ventral border of the heart and ventral thoracic wall
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On the DV view, where is free air found?
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Forms a lid in the dorsal part of the thorax
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What views give a more accurate assessment of free air?
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Horizontal beam
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On a lateral view, free fluid is found where?
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Pooling in the dependent hemithorax obscuring the cardiac shadow
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How is fluid visualized pooling in the lungs on a DV/VD view?
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Fissure lines are seen more clearly
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What are some of the causes of pneumothorax?
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-lung rupture
-chest puncture -esophageal/trachea rupture -iatrogenic (following sx) |
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What are some causes of free fluid in the thorax?
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-effusion/transudate
-blood, chyle, pus |
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How might chronic inflammatory dz appear on a chest radiograph?
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Pleural thickening with rounding of retracted lung borders
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Radiographic evaluation of the chest wall includes assessing what areas sytematically?
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-periperhal soft tissues
-ribs -sternum -vertebrae -diaphragm |
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What types of conditions can cause disruption to the chest wall?
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-trauma
-cellulitis -subcutaneous emphysema -masses |
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Occasionally, what might be found along the thoracic wall due to a rupture?
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Abdominal contents
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Lesions of which structures are easily missed?
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Ribs
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Rib lesions can include what types of pathology?
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-fx
-neoplastic lesion -osteomyelitis -tumor |
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Strenebral malformations and dislocations are generally without clinical significance. However, this area should be assessed for evidence of what?
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Bone infection or neoplasia
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All vertebrae should be inspected for potential evidence of what types of pathology?
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-trauma
-infection -neoplasia |
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Ribs and vertebrae are common sites for what pathology?
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Mets
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Intrathoracic masses arising from the chest wall will have what appearance?
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Displacement of adjacent thoracic contents
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Rupture of the diaphragm results in the cranial contents of the abdomen moving where?
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Into the thorax
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When does cranial displacement of the pylorus occur?
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When part of the liver has migrated through a small right sided tear
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How can you confirm a case of diaphragmatic rupture?
|
-contrast studies
-U/S |
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How long after giving the barium orally should you wait before acquiring the images?
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45 mins
|
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What is the most common defect of the diaphragm?
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Peritoneo-pericardial hernia
|
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What type of clinical signs do animals with this condition show?
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usually none
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Radiographically, a Peritoneo-pericardial hernia appears how?
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Abdominal contents in the pericardial sac increase the size of the heart silhouette
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Hiatal hernias can be of what 2 types?
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Permanent or sliding
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How can a permanent hiatal hernia be diagnosed?
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By the use of oral contrast
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Demonstration of a sliding hiatal hernia may require the use of what imaging modality?
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Fluroscopy
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Sliding hiatal hernia is frequently associated with what condition?
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Gasto-esophagitis in oriental cats
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By what other means might the diaphragmatic musculature be altered?
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Congenital malformations
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What is the position of the affected side of the diaphragm in a case of unilateral diaphragmatic paralysis?
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Displaced caudally
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A pneumomediastinum can be caused by air entering from where?
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-sub-pleaural rupture of lung
-intrathoracic tracheal or esophagus rupture -via the thoracic inlet along fascial planes of the neck |
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What radiographic feature do you look for with a pneumomediastinum?
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Visibility of the individual cranial mediastinal structures
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What is a radiographic sign of free mediastinal air?
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Reverse fissure shadows with wedge shaped soft tissue opacities extending peripherally from the hilus
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Mediastinal masses are most often a result of what condition?
|
Lymphomegaly
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On a lateral view, what is a radiographic sign of a cranial mediastinal mass?
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Elevation of the trachea, combined with soft tissue opacity in the cranio-ventral thorax, and caudal displacement of the carina
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Fluid in the mediastinum is most commonly what type?
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Pus or blood
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What technique may help to visualize caudal displacement of the esophagus?
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Contrast medium
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What condition might mask the presence of mediastinal masses?
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Pleural effusion, repeat radiographs after draining
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The course of the trachea and the lumen diameter vary with what?
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Position of the neck and respiratory phase
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How does genuine displacement of the trachea appear radiographically?
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Infers changes in adjacent mediastinal structures
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Foreign bodies of the trachea that are easy to identify are of what density?
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Radiopaque
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Tracheal rupture is more common in which species?
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Cat
|
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What is the appearance of the lumen after a tracheal collapse?
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Appears increased
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What appearance would tracheal hemorrhage have?
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Localized luminal narrowing
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What condition will cause the tracheal lumen to be narrowed throughout its length?
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Congenital hypoplasia
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Congenital hypoplasia is common in which species?
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Brachycephalic dogs
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Tracheal collapse is not easy to demonstrate of plain radiographs. At which respiratory phase should the exposure be made?
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Expiration-intra-throracic narrowing occurs
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Granulomas of the trachea can be caused by what parasite?
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Filaroides oslerii
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Tumors of the trachea are usually of what origin?
|
Cartilaginous-chondroma
|
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What is the preferred method to visualize the esophagus radiographically?
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Barium swallow
|
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What contrast agent type is used if you suspect a rupture of the esophagus?
|
Water soluble
|
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What method is used to demonstrate the full extent of esophageal distension?
|
Mix barium with food
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In the distal esophagus of the cat, what kind of muscle pattern would be seen with a barium study?
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Circumferential
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What is the most common esophageal f.b. in dogs, and where do they tend to be located?
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Bones- between heart base and diaphragm
|
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What other imaging technique can be used to evaluate the esophagus?
|
Fluoroscopy
|
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True or false. Megaesophagus is usually seen on plain films.
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True
|
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How would you demonstrate f.b. of soft materials?
|
Barium
|
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What congential anomaly will cause a pouch to form in the cranial thoracic esophagus?
|
Vascular ring anomaly
|
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What conditions can cause an acquired stricture of the esophagus?
|
-trauma (f.b.)
-reflux or corrosive esophagitis |
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Diverticula are usually located in which portion of the esophagus?
|
lower esophagus
|
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What is the appearne of a gastro-esophageal intussusception?
|
Large rounded soft tissue mass in the distal esophagus
|
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Neoplasia of the esophagus is rare except when this parasite is prevelent.
|
Spirocerca lupii
|
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What wpould contrast studies of the esophgus demonstrate in a case of Spirocerca lupii?
|
Mural attachment
|
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What do you consider when evaluating the lung fields in a radiograph?
|
-airways
-blood vessels -aeration |
|
Lung patterns may be due to pathology but may also be caused by what?
|
-obese conformation
-faulty technique |
|
Why are the terms "interstitial" and "alveolar" lung patterns confusin?
|
They refer to anatomic structures that can't be seen by the naked eye
|
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What is the radiographic appearance of an airway or bronchial infiltrate lung pattern?
|
A distinct bad or layer of soft tissue opacity surrounding the bronchial lumen (look end on)
|
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Vascular changes in the lungs are associated with what?
|
Alterations in pulmonary circulation
|
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How is a "real" interstitial pattern described?
|
Background of the lung parenchyma is increased in opacity to the extent that peripheral vascular marking are partially obscured, but still just visible
|
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In the alveolar pattern, it is implied that the alveolar air space has been replaced by what?
|
Material of soft tissue opacity: edema fluid, inflammatory tissue, blood or neoplastic cells
|
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What is an air bronchogram?
|
When alveolar infiltration is extensive, the radiographic appearance is that of uniform homogenous opacification, through which air in the larger bronchi can be seen
|
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A very small nodular pattern in the lung is refereed to as what?
|
Milliary opacities
|
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Lung disease pattern as described in terms of distribution using what types of terms?
|
-solitary
-multiple -localized -lobar -regional -generalized -hilar/central/peripheral -patchy, cloudy, fluffy |
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Bronchitis will have what appearance on radiographs?
|
Increase in thickness of bronchial walls or surrounding lung tissue (peri-bronchial infiltration)
|
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What is bronchiectasis?
|
Dilatation of bronchi, some of which contain exudate and my be increased in opacity
|
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An increase in lung volume may be seen with bronchitis or bronchiectasis, what effect causes this increase in volume?
|
Check valve effect due to collapse of small bronchi during expiration
|
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True or false. Any Mineralization of the bronchial wall and peri-bronchial infiltration is no tnormal.
|
False, most animals have some normally
|
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Bronchiectatic lungs are pre-disposed to what condition?
|
Bacterial infections
|
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What is the most common condition on which alveolar air trapping occurs?
|
Feline allergic bronchitis
|
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What condition may be associated with feline allergic bronchitis?
|
Stress fx of the ribs
|
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Bacterial pneumonias of systemic origin have what type of distribution in the lungs?
|
Generalized
|
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What type of lung pattern is seen with bacterial pneumonia?
|
Alveolar infiltration with air bronchograms
(fluffy/patchy) |
|
How do eosinophilic infiltrates present on a radiograph?
|
Fluffy irregular pattern, tendency to be a nodular configuration
|
|
Immune mediated infiltrates, such as those from FIP, produce what changes on a radiograph?
|
Homogenous opacification of the interstitial type
|
|
Inhalational pneumonia tend to affect which part of the lung lobes?
|
The dependent portions
|
|
An inhaled f.b. such as a grass seed tend to lodge where in the lungs?
|
Caudal lobes
|
|
Radiographic appearance of an inhaled f.b. may be what?
|
Interstitial type infiltration or well defined nodule formation
|
|
Granulomatous lesions tend to be located where in the lungs?
|
Localized
|
|
Pulmonary hemorrhage shows as which lung pattern?
|
Alveolar
|
|
What is the most common cause of pulmonary edema?
|
Congestive heart failure
|
|
Which lung lobe is often most severly affected with pulmonary edema from CHF?
|
Right caudal
|
|
When is pulmonary thrombo-embolism recognized radiographically?
|
In later stages, when infarction of the lung occurs
|
|
What appearance does pulmonary thrombo-embolism have?
|
That as an inflammatory lung disease
|
|
What happens to the lung lobe as a result of lung lobe torsion?
|
Becomes congested and filled with blood
|
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What radiographic clue may indicate lung torsion?
|
Absence of fissures demarcating the affected lobe
|
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Which lung lobes are usually affected by torsion?
|
Right middle and left cranial
|
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After drainage what is the appearance of lung torsion?
|
A localized masss
|
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What condition should be considered in any dog with severe and unremitting dyspnea and a normal chest radiograph?
|
Paraquat poisoning
|
|
Discrete solitary masses are usually easy to identify. Sometime, what additional views are needed for visualization?
|
Multiple projections- obliques
|
|
How large must a metastatic nodule be to be visible on a radiograph?
|
0.5- 0.75 cm in diameter
|
|
In some cases, when are small metastatic nodules best seen?
|
In portions of lungs superimposed on the heart or diaphragm where aerated tissue surrounding them is thin
|
|
What type of borders do metastases have?
|
Indistinct and fluffy
|
|
Milliary mets sometimes give the appearance of what texture?
|
Granular
|
|
Accumulation of free in in thin walled bullous structures of the lung are asscoiated with what 2 conditions?
|
-acute inflammatory dz
-recurring pneumothorax |
|
What is the cause of a hematocyst?
|
Trauma- walled off collection of blood and free air that has escaped from damaged alveoli
|
|
What is the radiographic appearance of a hematocyst?
|
Clearly defined soft tissue opacity in the lung parenchyma, with a radiolucent center representing a gas bubble
|
|
How do you distinguish an abscess containing gas from a hemtocyst?
|
Margins are more irregular
|
|
What is the gas pattern seen in a cavitating neoplasm?
|
Irregular accumulation of gas
|
|
What is the main contribution of radiography to the management of cardiac disease?
|
Evaluation of pulmonary circulation
(preclinical recognition of hepatomegaly and ascites may also be heloful) |
|
What does the cardiac silhouette on a radiograph represent?
|
The heart and pericardium
|
|
On a lat radiograph of the thorax of a dog, left artrial enlargement is seen as what?
|
Prominence of the caudo-dorsal prtion of the cardiac silhouette, the tenting effect
|
|
What structures become elevated as the left atrium increases in size?
|
Elevation of the carina and main stem bronchi
|
|
On the DV view, what is the clock face position of an enlarged left atrium?
|
1:30-3:00
|
|
As the left atrium continues to enlarge, it can be confused with what condition?
|
Right sided heart failure
|
|
What is the appearance of an enlarged left ventricle on a lateral view?
|
Straightening of the caudal cardiac border
|
|
Left ventricular enlargement is almost always accompanied by what condition?
|
Left atrial enlargement
|
|
Which chamber, when enlarged, is seen on the lat view as a bulging cranial heart shadow?
|
Right ventricle
|
|
What is the classic appearance of an enlarged right ventricle on a DV/VD view?
|
Reverse "D"
|
|
Why is an enlarged right atrium difficult to distinguish?
|
Lies mainly within the cranial mediastinum, changes merge with other structures
|
|
What is the most common cause of cardiomegaly in cats?
|
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
|
|
What is the most obvious radiographic finding in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in a cat?
|
Bi-atrial enlargement
|
|
On the DV view, what is the appearance of the heart with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?
|
Valentine shape
|
|
When does lobar vessel size become an issue?
|
From pulmonary volume overload
|
|
What pulmonary vasculature finding is charateristic in an infection with D. immiitis?
|
Wide, tortuous and truncated caudal lobe arteries
|
|
What is the most frequent reason for evaluating the pulmonary vasculature?
|
To check the effects of CHF and response to tx
|
|
When the heart shadow appears small and there is a reduction in the size of the peripheral vessels, what condition can you expect?
|
Shock or hypovolemia
|
|
When else might you see smaller than normal vessels?
|
Pulmonic stenosis and other congenital defects which lead to under-perfusion
|
|
Pericardial effusion appears how on a radiograph?
|
Globular heart shape
|
|
True or false. The globular heart appeatance is specific to pericardial effusion?
|
False, gross cardiac dliatation may have the same appearance
|
|
Which imaging modality is needed to distinguish pericardial effusion from gross cardiac dilatation?
|
U/S
|
|
What evidence of CHF might be seen radiographically before a change in the size or shape of the heart is seen?
|
Evidence of right sided CHF...wide caudal vena cava, enlarged liver
|
|
Which modality has revolutionized the dx of congenital heart defects?
|
U/S
|
|
What is the appearance of the heart in the case of a PDA?
|
Left atrial and ventricular enlargement, cardiac outline is elongated on both views, with marked ventricular rounding
|
|
In the DV projection, what is the appearance of the aortic and/or pulmonary segments in the case of PDA?
|
Maybe prominence
|
|
What are the classic radiographic signs of pulmonary stenosis?
|
Gross right ventricular enlargement and a prominent pulmonary knuckle
|
|
How do the lungs look in the case of pulmonary stenosis?
|
Under-perfused, pulmonary vasculature appears small and lungs hyperlucent
|
|
What finding might be seen in the case of subaortic stenosis?
|
May shpow as a prominence or bulge in the aortic arch, on both views
|
|
Dramatic signs of left or right sided cardiomegaly and CHF can be seen with what conditions?
|
Mitral or tricuspid valvular dysplasia
|
|
What is the most important view to visualize the pharlynx and larynx?
|
lateral view--low technique
|
|
In the conscious animal. where does the soft palate lie?
|
Ventral to the epiglottis
|
|
In the intubated dog, where does the epiglottis lie?
|
Ventral to the soft palate
|
|
Intraluminal lesions of the larynx and pharynx include what?
|
-foreign body
-cyst/abscess -granuloma -tumor |
|
Cartilage disruption can be caused by what conditions?
|
-granuloma
-carcinoma |
|
Are hyoid fractures common or uncommon?
|
Uncommon
|
|
How many views does a radiopaque f.b. require for proper demonstration?
|
2
|
|
How can a soft tissue material type f.b. be delineated?
|
May be delineated by air
|
|
Laceration of the larynx/pharynx and resulting subcu emphysema is often a result of what type of trauma?
|
"run onto stick" injury
|
|
How might an abscess be seen radiographically?
|
May contain gas bubbles or streaks
|
|
Which type of tumor id distinctive, and relatively radiolucent?
|
Lipoma
|
|
What disease condition is seen as benign, well-circumscribed mineralized masses; the soft tissue of the neck is a predilection site.
|
Calcinosis cutis
|
|
What are the indications for radiography of the equine head?
|
-trauma
-dental dz -nasal discharge -superficial swelling and/or discharging tracts -signs of vestibular dz with facial paralysis |
|
What are the technical requirments for radiography of the equine head?
|
-portable unit
-sedated, standing horse -some form of cassette holder & stand |
|
What is required to perform detailed dental radiography?
|
-deep sedation of horse & insertion of a gag
-possible gen anesthesia |
|
Where do you center when taking a radiograph of the equine facial area?
|
On the distal facial crest
|
|
In the young adult hose, the sinus cavities are partially obscured by what structure?
|
Long reserve crowns of the cheek teeth
|
|
What view is used to see the maxillary arcade?
|
30 degree oblique
|
|
What view is used to visualize the mandible?
|
45 degree oblique
|
|
What is the purpose of intra-oral projections?
|
Demonstration of the rostral maxilla and mandible and incisor and canine teeth
|
|
Fractures of the skull are most common in what area?
|
Dorsal facial area
|
|
Penetrating fxs of the nasal bones and maxilla can lead to what condition?
|
-accumulation of blood in the paranasal sinuses
|
|
What is suture periostitis?
|
Damage to the fronto-nasal suture can lead to periosteal proliferation and associated soft tissue swelling
|
|
Hemorrhage of the gutteral pouch may be associated with what traumatic condition?
|
Fx of the skull base
|
|
Chip fx of the mandible and fxs involving teeth can become infected and lead to what condition?
|
Discharging tract with sequestra
|
|
Destruction of the nasal conchae is best seen on which view?
|
VD
|
|
Is sinusitis in the horse related to dental dz?
|
Yes, can be primary or secondary to dental dz
|
|
What is the appearance of sinusitis?
|
Inflammatory changes in the mucosa, build up of granulation tissue causes diffuse, patchy increase in opacity and air spaces, fluid levels may be seen
|
|
Rhinitos can cause mineralization of the nasal cavity which can have what kind of radiographic appearance?
|
Coral formation
|
|
Which sinus dz tend to fill the sinus cavity and produce a homogenous opacification, mineralization may be seen.
|
Sinus cyst
|
|
Which sinus dz is adjacent to the ethmoturbinate and may bleed into the sinus?
|
Ethmoidal hematoma
|
|
How common are other neoplasias of the sinus?
|
rare
|
|
Incisors are best seen on what type of view?
|
intra-oral films
|
|
Which views best demonstrate the cheek teeth?
|
30 and 45 degree obliques
|
|
What are the main indications for radiography of the teeth?
|
-disorders of eruption
-trauma involving the teeth -peri-apical infection -dental cysts and tumors -peri-odontal dz |
|
What are some of the radiographic signs of peri-apical dz?
|
-peri-apical lucency
-loss or thickening of lamina dura -distortion or roots (clubbing) -isolated radiodense cement fragments (pearls) -proliferation of alveolar bone -cortical remodeling -secondary sinusitis |
|
What is an odontoma?
|
Dentigerous cyst- bone like structure grwoing from petrosal bone
|
|
Which views are the only feasible projections for the equine larynx/pharnyx?
|
Lateral only
|
|
What are the disorders of the larynx that may be demonstrated on a radiograph?
|
-chondritis
-epiglottic entrapment -sub-epiglottic cysts |
|
What are the disorders of the pharynx/soft palate that may be demonstrated on a radiograph?
|
-cyst
-abscess -palatine displacement |
|
What are the disorders of the guttural pouch that may be demonstrated on a radiograph?
|
-tympany
-fluid -filling -stylohyoid destruction |
|
To minimize the amount of magnification on a chest radiograph of an equine, what FFD should you use?
|
At least 2 meters
|
|
How many radiographic fields are needed to cover the adult thorax?
|
4
|
|
What is the valur of chest rads in a horse?
|
Can show free pleural air and fluid
Hemorrhage, severe generalized infiltrates and localized lesions can be detected in the portions of lungs not obscured by the heart |
|
Can the heart be evaluated on radiographs of the equine thorax?
|
Not accurately
|
|
When would VD views be useful in foals?
|
To localize pulmonary lesions such a Rhodoccous equi, pneumonia and pulmonary congestion from congenital defects
|
|
The cervical vertebral column of the horse is assessed with which view?
|
Lateral
|
|
How do you indentify C6 on a radiograph?
|
has transverse processes
|
|
What normal changes are seen in the cranial thoracic spine of the horse?
|
Cartlaiges of prolongation mineralize irregularly
|
|
What are the indications to take radiographs of the equine vertebral column?
|
-trauma
-congential malformation -infection -degenerative disorder |
|
What radiographic signs of Wobbler's might you see?
|
-instability.stepping of C3-C4
-compression at C2-3 |
|
What is a radio-pharmaceutical?
|
A radioactive element attached to an appropriate organic molecule
|
|
RP's become attached to molecules in the body at what sites?
|
-bone
-blood cells -thyrois -liver cells -alveolar air |
|
The radioactivity concentrated at the target site is measured by what device?
|
Gamma camera
|
|
Areas of high concentration of radiopharmaceutical are called what?
|
Hotspots
|
|
In vet med, where is nuclear medicine most widely used?
|
Equine practice for bone lesions before visible radiographic changes have taken place
|
|
What is the RP used for bones?
|
Tc99m (technetium)
|
|
What nuc med studies can be performed on the lung?
|
V/Q
|
|
What are some other vet med uses of nuc med?
|
-hyperthyroidism (cats)
-arthropathies/mets in bones -PSS |
|
Why can radiation be used against tumors?
|
It kills cells
|
|
What is the goal of radiation tx?
|
Maximize tumor cell death, minimize normal cell death
|
|
Radiation tx is useful for tumors in what areas?
|
Near critical structures such as brain, spinal cord, large vessels, urethra
|
|
What is the limiting factor in the use of radiation tx?
|
Tolerance dose of the adjacent tissues
|
|
What is teletherapy?
|
Radiation delivered in the form of a beam
|
|
What is brachtherapy?
|
Implanted sealed radiation source
|
|
Orthovoltage x-ray tx is used to treat what type of lesions?
|
Superficial skin lesions
|
|
What type of radiation tx units treat deeper lesions?
|
Linear accelerators
|
|
Sealed radioactive sources are used to deliver doses and can be placed where?
|
-interstitial
-intracavitary -surface |
|
What sources is used for brachytx?
|
Ccesiums137, iodine131, iridium192
|
|
Specific organ uptake tx is used to tx what condition?
|
Feline thyroid neoplasia-most common use in vet med
|
|
How does radiation tx for the thyroid work?
|
A dose of I 131 is given that selectively destroys iodine containing cells
|
|
What are the effects of radiation on DNA?
|
-direct molecular disruption
-indirect-via free radicals (most common) |
|
What are the consequences of DNA damage?
|
-damage is repaired
-irreparable damage (death of normal cells, carcinogenesis, heritable defects) |
|
The sensitivity of a cell to radiation is dependent on what?
|
Its mitotic activity
|
|
Which tissues are sensitive to radiation?
|
-bone marrow
-epithelium -intestine -skin -germinal cells |
|
Which tissues are resistant to radiation?
|
-liver
-kidney -bone -cartilage -nerve -brain |
|
What cell type has high mitotic activity but low sensitivity to radiation?
|
Lymphocyte
|
|
Which type of cells are 3 times more resistant to radiation?
|
Hypoxic cells
|
|
What are the clinical signs of the effects of radiation tx on skin?
|
-erythema
-pruritis -hair loss -moist desquamation |
|
What are the clinical signs of the effects of radiation tx on the oral cavity?
|
-ptyalism
-halitosis -dysphagia -ulceration |
|
What are the clinical signs of the effects of radiation tx on the GIO tract?
|
-vomiting
-diarrhea |
|
Late effects occurs in which tissues?
|
Those tissues whose cells divide infrequently:
kidney liver skin (fibrous) or not at all....muscle, lens, CNS |
|
How is the does minimized in radiation tx?
|
Teletherapy- keep field small
Fractionation- divide the dose up Brachyx- does restricted to a local area |
|
Sound waves are a series of pulses made up of what?
|
Compressions and reflections
|
|
What is the range of frequency used in U/S?
|
2-15 MHz
|
|
Since there is an inverse relationship between frequency and velocity, what type of wavelength do high frequency transducers have?
|
Small wavelengths
|
|
Which frequencies travel deeper into tissue...higher or lower?
|
Lower frequency travels deeper
|
|
How are the ultrasound waves created?
|
Crystals mechanically vibrate when stimulated by electric current (piezo-electric effect), electrical energy converted to sound waves
|
|
Name some of the types of tranducers?
|
-linear
-curvilinear -sector -mechanical -phased-array |
|
What % of time is the crystal the emitter? and the receiver?
|
emitter: 1%
receiver: 99% |
|
The sound waves interact with tissues at different what?
|
Velocities
|
|
What is acoustic impedence?
|
Resistance to the transmission of sound
|
|
How does the US unit calculate an image?
|
The distance traveled of the reflected sound
|
|
The transmission of sound through air results in a reflection of what % of the sound waves?
|
99%
|
|
Bone reflects how much of the sound waves?
|
20%
|
|
The ability to see a fluid filled structure is passed on what principle?
|
Not all tissues attenuate equally (weakening of beam)
|
|
To ensure maximal reflection of sound back to the transducer, the transducer must be held in what position?
|
Perpendicular to the tissue of interest
|
|
Do higher or lower frequency transducer have better image quality?
|
Higher ... but don't penetrate as much
|
|
What is lateral resolution?
|
The ability to discern 2 objects close together in a lateral plane
|
|
What type of beam pulse gives better lateral resolution...thicker or thinner?
|
Thinner
|
|
Two dimensional, general US work is done with which mode?
|
B mode
|
|
When is the M mode used?
|
Motion-heart
|
|
The eyes are scnned using which mode?
|
A-amplitude mode
|
|
When is Doppler used?
|
Blood flow, specialized cardiac
|
|
B mode stands for what
|
Brightness...real time
|
|
What is meant by the term echogenic?
|
Echoes are visible
|
|
What is echongenicity?
|
Ability of a tissue to generate echos
if it cant is its echolucent or anechoic |
|
What is an object that is hypoechoic?
Hyperechoic? |
Shades of grey
Bright or white |
|
Abdominal radiography requires a minimal of which view(s)
|
Recumbent lateral and VD
|
|
How is a true lateral view obtained?
|
Pads placed under the sternum and between the stifles to avoid pelvic tilt
|
|
What view is taken to demonstrate free air in the abdomen?
|
Left lateral decubitus view
|
|
Which U/S transducer is used for a dog's abdomen?
|
3.5 - 7.5 Mhz
|
|
The presence of what, in the abdomen, increases radiographic contrast on plain films?
|
Intra-abdominal fat
|
|
What is the radiograhic appearance of the abdomen when it is fluid filled?
|
-lack of contrast
-homogenous soft tissue opacity -poor serosal definition of the intestines -inability to define the margins of the liver, spleen, bladder -intestinal gas shadows lie in center of abdomen -pendulous abd wall margins -small volumes of fluid give an indistinct appearance to the center of the abd |
|
For peritoneal fluid, what is the imaging modality of choice?
|
U/S
|
|
When might peritonitis form?
|
-secondary to trauma of abd wall or rupture of abd organ
-secondary to pancreatitis or pancreatic neoplasm -seen with bile or urine in the abd |
|
Peritonitis or abdominal fluid may have what appearance on U/S?
|
Swirling-snowy appearance
|
|
What findings might be seen in a case of retroperitoneal fluid--hemorrhage or urine?
|
-poor retroperitoneal detail
-ill defined renal shadows -displaced renal silhouette -displaced colon |
|
Intra abdominal free gas may show what radiographic signs?
|
-separation of diaphragm from liver
-gas shadows surrounding and ehancing renal silhouettes -unusual gas patterns- bubbles/streaks not associated with the GI tract |
|
What is the standard method for imaging the GI tract?
|
Radiographs, plain and with contrast
|
|
Which lateral view is taken for a basic abdominal exam?
|
Right ( and VD)
|
|
What abnormalities might you find on an abdominal series?
|
-FB
-obstrtuciton -ileus -gastric distension/volvulus -displacement or abnormal position |
|
On a lateral view of the stomach, where is the long axis located?
|
Parallel to the 10th ICS
|
|
On the left lateral view, gas is seen in which portion of the stomach?
|
Pyloric region
|
|
The empty pylorus can sometimes be mistaken for what?
|
A f.b.
|
|
On the VD view, how does the stomach lie in a dog?
|
Long axis at right angle to the vertebral column
|
|
What is the shape and location of the cat stomach on a VD view?
|
On the left side of the abdomen, in a C-shape
|
|
Which drug can cause marked gastric dilatation?
|
Xylazine
|
|
What are some of the causes of gastric outflow obstruction?
|
-pyloric fb
-obstruction due to pyloric stenosis or neoplasia -secondary extrinsic obstruction dues to pancreatitis or panc neoplasia |
|
What radiographic sign might be seen in the case of a partial gastric torsion?
|
A soft tissue stripe seen crossing the area of the stomach compartmentilzation- food may be seen in 1 compartment
|
|
What other signs of torsion might be seen?
|
-small intestines in dorso-cranial abd
-air throughout the intestine -megaesophagus |
|
What additional technique might be need for confirmation?
|
Barium study
|
|
Which intestinal abnormalities requires radiologic investigation?
|
-vomiting
-diarrhea -melena |
|
What is the normal diameter of the small intestine?
|
2 rib widths
|
|
What is the indication for a barium swallow?
|
-radiolucent f.b.
-infiltratitve bowel dz |
|
Prior to using barium to examine the bowel, what 2 conditions should be met?
|
-stomach and bladder emptied
|
|
What is the GI transit time, and when should the tract be emptied post barium administration?
|
30-120 mins
should be empty in 3-5 hours |
|
The normal colon in the dog has what shape to it?
|
Question mark-shaped
|
|
What are the outpouchings seen along the antimesenteric border of the duodenum on a barium study on a dog?
|
Peyers patches or "pseudoulcers"
collection of lymphoid material |
|
What appearance does the duodenum of the cat often have?
|
String of pearls
|
|
True or false, a fimbriated appearance of the small intestine, with barium, is abnormal?
|
false, normal brush border appearance
|
|
As a rule of thumb, what should the size of the intestinal wall be?
|
1/8 to 1/4 the diameter of lumen
|
|
With which transducer can you image the layers of the stomach and intestine?
|
High frequency
|
|
What is meant by the term ileus?
|
Distension of a segment or segments of small intestine, may be localized or generalized
|
|
Where is the ileo-cecal joint located on a DV radiograph of a cat?
|
It isn't...it's the ileo-colic joint
|
|
What are some causes of local distension of bowel loops?
|
-f.b.
-neoplastic infiltrate -intussusception -herniation -local ahesions |
|
The gravel sign is an indication of what?
|
Chronic obstruction
|
|
Generalized ileus is often associated with what conditions?
|
-parvo
-peritonitis -chronic obstruction in the distal sm intestine |
|
What would you suspect if you see barium outlining an irregular mucosal border?
|
Infiltration of the bowel wall from inflammatory dz or neoplasia
|
|
What is a redundant colon?
|
when the descending colon lies to the right of midline
|
|
What are some causes of colon distension?
|
-constipation
-pelvic obstruction -megacolon -neoplasia -rectal diverticulum -perineal hernia |
|
Normally, where does the liver lie?
|
Within the costal arch
|
|
On a lateral view how does the liver appear?
|
Sharp triangular opacity peeking our beyond the last rib
|
|
Changes in the size or position of the liver are seen as changes to what?
|
The position of outline of the stomach or diaphragm
|
|
At which respiratory phase should a radiograph of the liver be made?
|
Expiration- inspiration may cause the lover to lie caudal to the costal arch
|
|
What are some radiographic signs of an enlarged liver?
|
-rounding of the caudal margin projecting beyond the costal arch
-projection beyond the costal arch -cadual displacement of the gastric axis -caudal displacement of abd organs |
|
What causes a mirror artifact in U/S
|
Imaging a structure located next to a curved surface
|
|
What are some causes of reduced liver size?
|
-PSS
-cirrhosis -diaphragmatic hernia |
|
How do you determine reduced liver size on radiographs?
|
-inability to identify ventro-caudal liver margin
-gastric axis displaced cranially |
|
What contrast technique might be used to diagnose PSS?
|
Portal venography- cannual into the jejunal mesenteric vein
|
|
What is seen on a normal portal venogram?
|
Contrast fills the portal vein and its branches
|
|
What would you expect to see on a venogram with a PSS?
|
Contrast is shunted directly to the caudal vena cava or azygous vein
|
|
Which U/S technique can assist with a dx of PSS?
|
Doppler
|
|
What is the gold standard to diagnosing a PSS?
|
Nuclear med
|
|
Where is the radioactive isotope administered to dx a PSS?
|
in the rectum
|
|
What is the echogenicity of choleliths?
|
Hyperechoic
|
|
Is the spleen visualized on radiographs?
|
Yes- the splenic head can be seen in the left cranial abd, lateral to the stomach on the VD view
|
|
In which lateral view is the spleen seen as a soft triangle on the mid-ventral abd, caudo-ventral to the pylorus and caudal to the stomach?
|
The right lateral...not consistently seen on the left lateral
|
|
What is the U/S appearance of the spleen?
|
Hyperechoic compared to the lover and kidneys, only a few vessels identified
|
|
What is the appearance of splenomegaly?
|
Soft tissue mass, mid ventral abd
|
|
What large circular finding in the mid ventral abd should not be mistaken for an enlarged bladder?
|
Hemangiosarcoma of the spleen
|
|
Spelenic rupture can have what radiographic appearance?
|
Poor serosal definition locally due to hemorrhage or metastatic seeding
|
|
What are the U/S findings of splenic rupture?
|
-echogenic fluid oscillating in the abd
-fibrn tags on serosal surface -disruption of normal splenic outline |
|
Splenic trosion may be seen as what sign by U/S?
|
Starry sky
|
|
How do ventral hernias appear on a radiograph?
|
Abdominal structures lying outside the abd cavity under the skin
|
|
what technique can help dx a perineal hernia?
|
contrast cystography
|
|
How does peritoneal fluid present on a radiograph?
|
-poor abdominal contrast
-serosal detail is indistinct -may be local or general |
|
Which modality is the method of choice for imaging fluid in the abdomen?
|
U/S
|
|
What is the U/S appearance of peritoneal fluid?
|
-anechoic areas outlined the serosal surfaces of abd structures
-swirling-snowy appearance -fibrin tags |
|
What are some causes of peritoneal hemorrhage?
|
-ruptured spleen
-ruptured liver -avulsed blood vessel -erosion of vital structure by neoplasm -neoplasia ,carcinomatosis, melanoma -peritoneal seeding-splenic neoplasia -pancreatitis |
|
Peritonitis may be seen with what types of fluid in the abd cavity?
|
-urine
-bile |
|
What are the radiographic signs of peritonitis?
|
-poor serosal detail
-with intestinal perforation or pancreatitis it is usually localized -free-intra-abdominal air |
|
What is the appearance of the fluid in peritonitis on U/S?
|
Highly echogenic
|
|
What imaging procedure is used to evaluate the urinary tract?
|
Intravenous urogram (IVP)
|
|
A low volume of contrast is given rapidly...how can you improve the viscosity of the contrast before injecting it?
|
Warm to body temp
|
|
Post injection, images are taken at what time intervals?
|
0,1,5,10,15,20 minutes
|
|
What additional procedure can help visualize the bladder?
|
Pnuemocystography, bladder inflated with 50-200 ml air
|
|
In which situations should you NOT perform pneumocystography?
|
-trauma
-cystitis -prostatitis |
|
For U/S exam of the bladder should the bladder be full or air of urine?
|
Urine or saline
|
|
Which U/S scan plane is best to see the ureters?
|
Transverse
|
|
Ectopic ureters are best seen with which procedure?
|
IVP
|
|
True or False. Cystitis is not usually diagnosed by radiography.
|
True
|
|
Uroperitonuem can be caused by what conditions?
|
-rupture of bladder
-rupture of ureters in peritoneal cavity -rupture of urethra -bladder rupture |
|
What radiographic technique is useful on male dogs to evaluate the integrity and patency of the urethra?
|
Retrograde urethrography
|
|
An U/S evaluation of the kidneys includes what?
|
-number of kidneys
-size -echogenicity -focal or diffuse parenchymal lesions -renal pelvis and collecting system |
|
What 3 planes do you scan in for an U/S exam of the kidneys?
|
-saggital
-transverse -dorsal |
|
What types of kidney lesions can be seen with U/S?
|
-cysts
-neoplasia -hematoma -abscess |
|
What is the U/S appearance of a renal cyst?
|
Anechoic and well marginated
|
|
What type of renal lesion can have a mixed echogenicity and a disrupted architecture?
|
Neoplasm
|
|
A renal neoplasm requires what procdure fro a definitive dx?
|
FNA
|
|
What conditions will appear diffusely in the kidney?
|
-neoplasia
-nephrosis -ethylene glycol posioning |
|
A hypoechoic area of the kideny cortex can be do to what dz?
|
Lymphosarcoma
|
|
A hyperechoic cortex could indicate what dz conditions?
|
-ethylene glycol poitoning
-glomerulonephritis -neprhocalcinosis |
|
Poor corticomedullary definition can indicate what condition?
|
End stage renal dz
|
|
A distended renal pelvis and ureter can indicate what condition?
|
Pyelonephritis
|
|
What are the U/S signs of chronic renal failure?
|
-small kidneys
-irregular margins -diffuse hyperechoic kidneys |
|
A large anechoic area surrounding the kidney can indicate what condition?
|
Perinephric cyst
|
|
Unilateral hydroneophrosis can be caused by what?
|
-ectopic ureter
-localized neoplasia in the bladder -urethral calculus |
|
What are some of the causes of bilateral hydronephrosis?
|
-neoplasia in bladder trigone
-severe or chronic cystitis -ectopic ureter |
|
what is the appearance of the renal pelvis and ureter in the case of hydronephrosis?
|
-distended pelvis
-tortuous ureter |
|
What does a hydroureter look like on U/S
|
Anechoic tubular structure originating in renal pelvis, often tortuous
|
|
A hyperechoic foci in the renal pelvis is consistent with what finding?
|
renal calculi
|
|
What would a ruptured kidney look like on a IVP?
|
-absent or abnormal kidney shadow
-contrast leakage into adjacent area |
|
On U/S a ruptured kidney will have what appearance?
|
-abnormal outline or disruption of the renal cortex or medulla
-hematomas -retroperitoneal mass |
|
True or False. U/S is the best method to image a ruptured ureter?
|
False- radiography
|
|
When is the genital tract of the non-pregnant female visualized on plain radiographs?
|
Only when the uterus or ovaries are enlarged- otherwise not seen
|
|
In the pregnant animal when does the uterus become visible on rads?
|
About the 5th week of pregnancy
|
|
When do fetal bones ossify?
|
Day 45
|
|
Via U/S, when can pregnancy be detected in the dog? The cat?
|
dog- 23-25 days
cat- 15th day |
|
When can fetal movement be detected?
|
35 days
|
|
In the case of fetal death, what is Spalding's sign?
|
Overlapping bones of the cranium
|
|
What are the U/S sounds of fetal death?
|
-lack of fetal heartbeat and movement
-ags echoes within the fetus |
|
How is pyometra seen radiographically?
|
As an enlarged uterus in the caudal abd that displaces the intestines cranially and dorsally
|
|
What is the appearance of a closed pyometra on U/S?
|
-a series of large, circular, thin-walled structures in the caudal abd- distended uterine loops are seen adjacent to each other
|
|
When is the prostate gland seen on radiographs?
|
-on the lateral view, just cranial to the pubic brim when the bladder is distended with urine
|
|
What are the causes of prostatomegaly?
|
-hyperplasia
-cyst formation -prostatitis -abscess -neoplasia |
|
In which direction does prostatitis displace the bladder?
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cranially and ventrally
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What technique would help differentiate the bladder from the prostate?
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Cystography
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Neoplasia of the prostate can metastasize to what areas?
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-lungs
-vertebrae -long bones -pelvis |
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What is the overall appearance of the benign hyperplastic prosate on U/S?
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The gland retains its shape, symmetry and smooth margins
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What signs of prostatic neoplasia can be seen on U/S?
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-irregular shaped gland
-multiple coelescing hyperechoic foci -areas of hemorrhage and necrosis may be seen |
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Focal mineralization and cavitation can be U/S findings for what condition?
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Prostatitis
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Can a specific type of testicular neoplasia be dx on U/S?
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No, not specific type
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What is the normal width of the cardiac shadow of the cat?
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2 intercostal spaces
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How is pericardial effusion identified on U/S?
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An anechoic area surrounding the heart separating it from the pericardium
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What happens to the appearance of the right atrial appendage in a tamponade condition?
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The right appendage flails, right atrial wall collapses
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What are some neoplastic masses that occur in the heart?
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-hemangioma
-hemagiosarcoma -heart base tumor |
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What is most common acquired cardiac disease in middle aged and older dogs?
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Mitral insuffciency
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What are some causes of mitral insufficiency?
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endocardiosis, ventricular dilaiton, ruptured chordar tendinae, cardiomyopathy, endocaridits, congenital mitral valve dysplasia
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What is a primary radiographic finding of mitral insufficiency?
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Enlarged left atrium
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On U/S what congenital defects might be seen in mitral insufficiency?
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-valve leaflets may be shortened or club shaped
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What condition, in addition to those that cause mitral insufficiency, can cause tricuspid insufficiency?
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Heartworms
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In which species is hypertrophic cardiomyopathy more common?
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Cats
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What condition is associated with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?
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Hyperthyroidism
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In which species is dilated cardiomyopathy more common?
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Dogs
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Which ventricle is enlarged in dilated cardiomyopathy?
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The left vent
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What is the U/S appearance of the left ventricle in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?
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Lumen appears reduced in size
-thickening of the septum and wall -atrium us usually enlarged |
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What are the clinical signs of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?
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-sudeen onset of dyspnea
-weight loss -ascites -hindlimg ataxia or paresis from thrombus of the terminal branches of the aorta |
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In what type of dogs are rupture of the chordae tendinae seen?
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Athletic dogs or chronic cardiac dz
|
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What is the radiographic presentation of the heart with pulmonic stenosis?
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-rounding of right heart border
-increased sternal contact -elevation of trachea right vent rounded |
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True or False, with an US view the pulmonary artery should be the same width throughout its length?
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True
|
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What is the radiographic appearance of aortic stenosis?
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-absence of cranial cardiac waist caused by post stenotic dilatation
-straightened caudal cardiac border -aortic arch prominent between 12-1:00 on DV |
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Which way does blood shunt in a PDA?
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Left to right-pulmonary overload
|
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What 3 radiographic signs of a PDA form a knuckle on the DV view between 1-3:00?
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-enlarged pulmonary artery
-enlarged aortic arch -dilatation of left atrium |
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Which US mode helps to dx the PDA via blood flow?
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Doppler
|
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Ventricular septal defect is more common in which species?
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Cats
|
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On US where is the ventricular septal defect often seen?
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High in the ventricular septum just below the aortic valve
|
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What imaging technique can be used to view the defect?
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Contrast echocardiogram or Doppler
|
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How common is an atrial septal defect?
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Uncommon usually doesn't occur alone
|
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Atrial septal defect should not be confused with what normal condition?
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Septal dropout- a very thin membrane replaces the normal spetum
|
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How do you distinguish a septal dropout from a septal defect?
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Contrast echo (bubble study) or doppler
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What are the terms for a low or high location for an atrial defect?
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Low = primum
High = secundum |
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Heart base tumors arise in what area?
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Around the heart base and the great vessels
|
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Pericardial fluid is common in a heart base tumor. What other radiographic signs are seen?
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-elevation of terminal trachea and/or esophagus
-trachea may be displaced to the right -cardiomegaly caused by pericardial effusion |
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What is the US M mode and when it is used?
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Motion mode- for cadiology- accurate chamber measurement
|
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What is the duplex mode?
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A scanner that displays 2 D and M mode at the same time
|
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What can Doppler help determine?
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-blood flow direction
-flow velocity -uniformity of flow |
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In Doppler, what does the red color coding mean? Blue?
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Red= towards the transducer
Blue= away from the transducer |
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In Doppler, what is meant by an array of bright colors?
|
turbulence
|
|
What is measured by using pulsed wave Doppler?
|
Pressure within vessels
|
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What type of transducer is needed to image the thoracic wall?
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High frequency
|
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Which imaging modality is preferred for diagnosing a pneumothorax?
|
Radiography
|