Sfu Bisc 102 Final

Front 1

Asexual reproduction

Back 1

-Reproduction without fertilization or conjugation
-Parent passes on 100% if its genes to all its offspring

Front 2

Sexual reproduction

Back 2

-Occurs through fertilization to produce genetically new individual
-Each parent passes 50% of it's genes to offspring

Front 3

Somatic cells

Back 3

-All cells in body except sex cells
-Diploid (2n)
-Produced from diploid cells by mitosis

Front 4

Gametes

Back 4

-Eggs and sperm
-Haploid (n)
-Produced from diploid cell by meiosis

Front 5

Meiosis 1

Back 5

-Separates homologous pairs
-2n-->4 single stranded

Front 6

Prophase 1

Back 6

-2n-->4 double stranded chromosomes

Front 7

Metaphase 1

Back 7

-2n-->double stranded but line up on metaphase plate

Front 8

Telophase 1

Back 8

1n-->2 double stranded chromosomes

Front 9

Meiosis 2

Back 9

-2nd division of meiosis separates sister chromatids

Front 10

Prophase 2

Back 10

1n-->2 double stranded

Front 11

Metaphase 2

Back 11

1n--> 2 double stranded chromosomes line up on metaphase plate

Front 12

Telophase 2

Back 12

1n-->2 single stranded

Front 13

Sources of genetic variation

Back 13

-Crossing over=recombination
-Independent assortment
-Random fertilization

Front 14

Crossing over

Back 14

-Exchange of corresponding segments of DNA by non-sister chromatids in a tetrad during prophase 1

Front 15

Independent Assortment

Back 15

-Random alignment of each pair of homologous chromosomes at Metaphase 1 plate
-2^n possible outcomes

Front 16

Random fertilization

Back 16

Any 2 parents produce a zygote with 70 trillion diploid combinations

Front 17

Advantages of sex

Back 17

-Introduces new combinations of heritable traits in offspring
-Accelerates the rate of evolution
-Potentially useful in a variable, dynamic environment

Front 18

Alleles

Back 18

-Any of the alternative versions of a gene that produce a distinguishable phenotypic effect
-Alleles may differ on homologous chromosomes

Front 19

Mendelian Genetics

Back 19

-Scientific study of how traits are passed on from parent to offspring
-Study of heredity

Front 20

Law of segregation
Mendels 1st law of heredity

Back 20

-Two alleles for a heritable trait separate during gamete formation onto different gametes.
-

Front 21

Law of Independent Assortment
Mendels 2nd law of heredity

Back 21

-Each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation

Front 22

Phenotype

Back 22

The physical and physiological traits of an organism which are determined and shown by it's genotype's

Front 23

Incomplete dominance

Back 23

-When there is no dominant genotype
-Example: Rr=a different phenotypic expression from RR or rr
Rr=intermediate phenotype

Front 24

Co-dominance

Back 24

-When each genotype determines a particular pheotype
-Example blood type ii=o, i^ai^a or ii^a=A, i^bi^b or ii^b=B, and i^ai^b=AB

Front 25

Polygenic inheritance

Back 25

-Multiple genes determine trait
-Polygenic characters have near normal frequency distribution
-Example: human skin color

Front 26

Heterozygous

Back 26

-having two different alleles for the same gene

Front 27

Homozygous

Back 27

-having the same two alleles for a gene

Front 28

Multiplication Law

Back 28

-Probability of independent events A and B=
probability of A * probability of B

Front 29

Peidgree

Back 29

-Circle is female, square is male
-colored in is affected
-two types autosomal and sex-linked

Front 30

Autosomal

Back 30

-Both males and females pass on 2 alleles in form
aa, AA, or Aa

Front 31

Sex-linked

Back 31

-Female=XX
-Male=XY
-Female has 2 alleles
-Male has 1 allele on the (X)

Front 32

Natural selection

Back 32

-Process by which the individuals that have the characteristics best suited to the environment survive and reproduce better than other individuals
-main mechanism for evolution

Front 33

Evolution

Back 33

-evolution is the change in allele frequencies of a population over time

Front 34

Micorevolution

Back 34

-Changes within species
-Changes in allele frequencies

Front 35

Macroevolution

Back 35

-The evolution of new species
-The extinction of species

Front 36

Allele frequency

Back 36

Allele1 + Allele2=1

Front 37

How do new alleles originate?

Back 37

Mutation
Horizontal gene transfer

Front 38

Mutation

Back 38

The random changes in DNA that introduce new alleles into a gene pool

Front 39

Point mutation

Back 39

-Changes in a single base pair, that causes a change in a single amino acid

Front 40

Gene duplication

Back 40

If a gene is duplicated the second copy can accumulate mutations freely

Front 41

Mutatuion can be

Back 41

-Deleterious
-Neutral
-Beneficial

Front 42

Horizonal gene transfer

Back 42

-Genes passed from one organism to another

Front 43

What affects allele frequency

Back 43

-Genetic drift
-Gene flow
-Selection

Front 44

Genetic drift

Back 44

-Random fluctuations in allele frequencies from one generation to the next

Front 45

Name two types of genetic drift and describe them

Back 45

-Bottleneck effect: Genetic drift that occurs when the size of a population is reduced by a natural disaster or human actions. Surviving population no longer genetically representative of original population.
-Founder effect: Genetic drift that occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population and form a new population whose gene pool composition is not reflective of original population.

Front 46

Gene flow

Back 46

-Transfer of alleles from one population to another
-Immigration & emigration/ accidental movement are ways it occurs

Front 47

Name and describe the 3 types of selection

Back 47

-Directional selection: Favors variants at one extreme of distribution
-Disruptive selection: Favors variants at both extremes of distribution(middle die off)
-Stabilizing Selection: Favors variants in-between extremes of distribution (variants at extremes die off)

Front 48

Examples to remember

Back 48

-Guppy colours: Translocation experiment, Directonal selection
-Bill size of Galapagos finches:Medium sized bills suffered highest mortality, Disruptive selection
-Birth weight in humans: Birth weight frequency lowest in middle, stabilizing selection

Front 49

What is behavioural ecology?

Back 49

-Study of the survival and reproductive value of behaviour and how this behaviour contributes to survival and reproduction

Front 50

What is fitness?

Back 50

How well an individual does relative to others in the population.
-Fitness=0-no representation of allele x in the next generation
-Fitness=1 100% allele x in next generation

Front 51

Altruistic behaviour

Back 51

-Acting to increase another individual's life time number f offspring at a cost of one's survival and reproduction

Front 52

Inclusive fitness

Back 52

Fitness can be gained 2 ways
-Directly-through personal reproduction
-Indirectly-by contributing to the survival and reproductive success of relatives

Front 53

Relatedness

Back 53

r=coefficient of relatedness between two individual
-probability that a particular allele, present in one individual, is also present in another individual because of their descent from a common ancestor
L=the number of generation links between the 2 individuals concerned

Front 54

Kin selection

Back 54

Process by which characteristics are favoured due to their beneficial effect on the survival or reproduction of relatives.
-Kin selection should occur if hamiltons rule is met

Front 55

Hamilton's rule

Back 55

rB-C>0
-B=benefit to the recipient of the altruistic act
-C=cost to the donor
-r=coefficient of relatedness between donor and recipient

Front 56

Reciprocal altruism

Back 56

Occurs when Brecipeint>C donor and help is reciprocated later
Example: vampire bats favour but also help non-related roost mates

Front 57

Difference between males and females

Back 57

Females: Produce few, large energetically expensive gametes
Males: Produce numerous, small, cheap gametes

Front 58

Reproductive success

Back 58

Males: Great potential but highly variable
-Males select to maximize quantity so males compete with each other
Females: Low potential but low low variability
-Females select to maximize quality so females choose their mates carefully

Front 59

Sexual selection

Back 59

-Process by which individuals that have traits that increase mating success are favored over individuals that do not have these traits

Front 60

Name and describe two forms of sexual selection

Back 60

Intrasexual selection: Process the favouring the ability to compete directly with member of the same sex (usually males) for access to the opposite sex
Intersexual selection: Process favouring the ability to attract members of the opposite sex

Front 61

Mating systems

Back 61

-The pattern of mate acquisition by both sexes
-Shaped by male/females reproductive potential, parental care, ecology and phylogeny
-Major determinant of how strong sexual selection will be

Front 62

Types of mating systems

Back 62

-Monogamy(1:1)-care of young by both parents, low male rate of reproduction
-Polygyny(1male:+2female)-Care of young by female only, patchy resources
-Polyandry(+2males:1female)-Care of young by male only, Low male rate of reproduction
-Polygamy/promiscuity(+2males/+2 females)-No care of young or care by female only, evenly distributed resources

Front 63

Direct benefits of choosing mates carefully

Back 63

-Mate with member of the correct species
-Have access to good/safe territory
-Get fed lots of food
-Get a good parent for offspring
-Get a fertile mate

Front 64

Indirect benefits of choosing mates carefully

Back 64

-Good genes: Sexually selected traits advertise genetic quality because they are costly to produce
-Sexy sons: Females choosing males with well-developed sexually selected traits produce sons with the same traits

Front 65

What is a species? (according to biological species concept)

Back 65

Groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups.

Front 66

How does speciation occur?

Back 66

Allopatric speciation-physical separation of two populations=interruption of gene flow
Sympatric speciation-No physical barrier

Front 67

Sympatric speciation can occur through two types of reproductive isolation.

Back 67

-Reproductive isolation by mutation: Polyploidy
-Reproductive isolation by ecology and behaviour

Front 68

Reproductive isolation by ecology and behaciour

Back 68

-Prezygotic mechanisms: prevent mating or fertilization
Postzygotic mechanisms: Prevent zygote development or reproduction

Front 69

What happens when divergent populations come into contact?

Back 69

1. Populations hybridize but hybrids less fit than parents-->reinforcement of differences
2. Populaitons hybridize and hybrids are as fit as parents-->Fusion
3. Populations hybridize and hybrids preferentially mate with each other-->stable hybrid zone

Front 70

Adaptive radiation

Back 70

-Sudden and rapid diversification of a phyletic line into several lineages
-Occurs when new set of niches opens up:
-Evolution of a new feature
-Opening up of a new habitat
-Extinction of other species or clade

Front 71

Adaptive radiation-galapagos finches

Back 71

Causes: Archipelago, New habitat, new food sources
-speciation by island hopping

Front 72

Adaptive radiation-Bats

Back 72

Caues: Extinction of pterosaurs, peak insect diversity, new features

Front 73

Tempo of speciation

Back 73

-Gradualism:traditional view, not supported by fossil record
-Punctuated Equilibrium: rapid appearance, slow to no change later

Front 74

Permian Extinction

Back 74

-250 mya
-90% + of all species
-96% marine species
-Victims: Ammonites, Trilobites, Blastoidea, mammal like reptiles

Front 75

Causes of permian extinction

Back 75

-Siberian volcanoes
-Formation of Pangea: Changed ocean circulation patterns, drop in sea level
-Reduced oxygen in oceans
-Climate change

Front 76

Cretaceous-Tertiare extinction

Back 76

-65 mya
-60-80% of all animal species extinct
-Victims: Pterosaurs, dinosaurs, many plants & invertebrates
-spared: mammals, crocodiles, non-north american plants

Front 77

Causes of K/T extiction

Back 77

-CLimate change
-Sea level chagnes
-Increased volcanic activity
Meteorite impact

Front 78

Causes of megafauna extinctions

Back 78

-Climate change
-Hyperdisease
-Overexploitation by humans

Front 79

Primates

Back 79

-Mammalian order
-Derived characters: 5 digits, flat nails, large bran, long parental care, complex social systems

Front 80

Anthropoids

Back 80

-Primate suborder
-Includes monkeys apes, humans
-Derived characters: Fully opposable thumb, larger brain

Front 81

Hominoids

Back 81

-Antropoid superfamily
-Includes apes and humans
-Derived characters: tail-less, arm-swinging, more erect posture, larger body size, larger brain