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21 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Trace the historical development of our understanding of the cause and prevention of malaria |
Malaria is caused by plasmodium protozoa, which multiplies in the lived and RBC of humans. - symptons includ shivering, fever, cold sweats, and eventually death. - the disease is spread b/w humans by mosquitoes. - hence, the life cycle of plasmodium can be broken - preventing malaria - by preventinf the mosquitoes from breeding. |
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Malaria cause, Transmission, host response, symptoms, treatment, prevention, and control |
Cause: the parasitic plasmodium protozoa. Transmission: you get bitten by the anopheles mosquito. - blood in a malaria victim contains plasmodium sex cells reproduce in the stomach of the anopheles mosquito that form zygotes in cysts in the stomach wall of the mosquito. - the sporozoites travel to the liver of the individual and enter red blood cells, continually multiplyingm - infected cells burst, causing malarial fever (symptons). Host response: immune response: which is where the immune sysstem attemots to clear the body of plasmodium. This can become parhological, as some of the cells involved cause fever in the host. - damage to RBCs: plasemodium hides in RBC to escaoe the immune response. - physiological changes: splenomegaly and hepatomegaly (enlarged liver and spleen). Symptoms: sweating, fever, Shivering, eventual death. Treatment: antimalaria drugs (e.g. Quinine). Prevention: not allowing mosquitoes to bite humans (mosquito nets, protectivr clothing, insect repellent). Control: breaking the plasmodium's life cycle (draining swamps, killing mosquitoes with insecticide). |
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Role of antibiotics in the management of infectious disease |
Antibiotics: drugs used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial disease. They have many different mechanisms of action such as: - inhibiting the formation of bacterial cell walls. - damaging the cell membranes of bacteria. - interfering with bacterial cell division. The first penicillin was discovered in 1928 by alexander fleming. Thus, Antibiotics ave vital in managing bacterial diseases. Before their discovery, many people died of what are now considered easily-treated infections, such as infections following surgery. |
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Discuss problems relating to antibiotic resistance |
As a result of mutation and natural selection among bacterial strains, there has been an emergence of antibiotic resistance bacteria (i.e. antibiotics are less powerful against them). causes: humans have acted as a selecting agent for the evolutionnof bacteria - allowing the stronger, resistant strains to survive by: - antibiotic overuse: unnecessary prescriptions by doctors. E.g. using antibiotics to treat viruses, rather than bacteria. - antibiotic misuse: patients not finishing the entire couse prescribed (killing the most susceptibke bacteria whilst leaving the more resistant bacteria to reproduce). Problems with this: - fewer effective antibiotics are available. - creates the need to invent stronger medications. - eventually, we will run out of effective antibiotics that kill bacteria whilst not causing harmful side-effects in humans. |
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Identify defence barriers to prevent entry of pathogens in humans |
- barriers to entry are often referred to as our first line of defence. Include: - skin - mucous membrane - cilia - chemical barriers - secretions |
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Identify defence adaptations |
Defence adaptations are referred to as our 'second line of defence'. Includes: - lymph system: produces WBC which are responsible for immune response and healing. * drains pathogens to lymph nodes, where they can be killed or neutralised by cells. * returns intercellular fluid to bllod system. - inflammation: dilation of blood vessels and infiltration of inflammatory cells, causing heat, redness, swelling and pain. * inflammation allows healing as it allows WBC to move from the blood vessels into the damaged tissue. * cells involved = most commonly neutrophils. - phagocytosis: when WBC change their shape to engulf particles and break them down with enzymes. * cells involved = macrophages. - cell death to seal off pathogen: WBCs enclose a pathogeb and isolate it from its food supply, sacrificing themselves in the process. * cells involved = macrophages and lymphocytes |
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Identify antigens as molecules that trigger the immune response |
Antigen: a molecule that the body recognises as foregin, triggering the immune response. - the immune response is generally only triggered if defence barriers fail. - our immune system needs to be able to distinguish between things that are foreign (like our own cells). When it can't do this properly, we get an immune response that is triggered inappropriately, or when we dont want it to be. This occurs in: * allergies (when normal things in the environment Re viewed as antigens). * autoimmune disease (when normal things inside us are viewed as antigens). * organ transplants and blood transfusions (when good things that we add are viewed as antigens). |
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Explain why organ transplants should trigger an immune response |
- organ transplants involve implanting a whole lot of foreign cells inside a body. - this should trigger an immune response because our body should recognize them as foregin. - the result is that our immune system attacks the new orga as if it were a harmful pathogen 'rejecting' it, unless we supress the immune response. |
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Show how a named disease results from an imbalance of microflora in humans |
Disease: thrush (a.k.a Candidiasis from Candida albicans) Cause: imbalance of microflora, most commonly in the mouth or vagina. - often occurs when antibiotics remove good bacteria along with harmful, resulting in harmful fungi taking over. Symptoms: itching, vaginal discharge, pain while urinating. Prevention: eating bacterial cuktures like natural yoghurt to promote growth of good bacteria. - wearing loose-fitting pants. - avoiding substances like soap that could disrupt vaginal pH. Treatment: anti-fungal creams and pills. |
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Identify components of the immune response |
Antibodies: highly specifc proteins produced when their mathching antigen is detected. - bind with antigens so that they can be recognised/destroyed by other cells of the immune system. B-cells: lymphocyte produced in bone marrow to control antibody mediated immunity: - differentiate to form: * plasma-B cells: produce antibodies * memory-B cells: provide long term immunity by antigen recognition. - they cannot directly destroy antigens, but can help other cells (like T cells) do so. T-cells: lymphocyte produced in the thymus gland to control cell medisted immunity. - produce toxins that destroy antigen-invaded cells. - help B cells differentiate and proliferate. - There are many different subsets, each with different functions: * some produce toxins that destroy antigen-invaded cells. * some help B-cells differentiate and proliferate. - they can directly destory antigens. |
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Describe and explain the immune response in the human body |
Range if t lymphocytes and their respective roles: - killer T: attach to pathogens and secrete toxins that cause lysis - this kills the pathogen. - helper T: up-regulate the oroduction of B-cells and killer T-cells. - suppressor-T: dowmregulates the production of B-cells and killer T-cells - memory-T: remain in the body so that later infection can be recognised. - self molecules on the surface of B-cells stop T-cells from attacking them as foreign pathogens. - helper-T cells secrete interleukins that bind to B-cells, encouraging them to make more antibodies, and cause more helper-T cells to develop |
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Outline the reasons for the suppression of the immune response in organ transplant patients |
This issue is combatted medically by supressing the immune response with drugs like anti-lymphocyte globulin (AUG). Obviously, this has many negative side-effects. As we have supressed our patients immune response, they are not vulnerable to basically all infections ever. A side effect of all immunosuppressive drugs isnthat the patient is unprotected from pathogens. Specific immunosuppressive drugs have other side effects. Steroids: such as prednisone can cause weight gain, fluid retention, raised blood pressure, diabetes and thinning of sking and osteoporosis. Cyclosporins: interfere with interleukin production by helper T cells but cause side effects such as tremors, excessive hair growth, kidney damage and increasednrisk of tumours and serious infection. |
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Outline the way in which vaccinations prevent infection |
The immune response is a slow process, and if we let it do its job by itself, we get sick before it snaos into action and we get well again. Vaccination is a process that introduces vaccines into the body. A vaccine can contain cultures of microorganisms that may be living but dead. Vaccines may also contain toxoids. Vaccines prevent us from getting sick by simulating a primary response; as the body undergoes the immune response and produces memory-B-cells for a antigen, the antigen is destroyed, and we recover completely. Thus, if the same antigen re-enters, a secondary response can be initiated. Memory-B-cell reactive the antibodies created following vaccination and secrete them in much larger amounts meaning before any symptoms are produced they will be destroyed. |
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Evaluate the effectiveness of vaccination prograns in oreventing the spread and occurence of once common diseases, including smallpox, diptheria and polio |
A vaccination program that was introduced that effectively stopped the spread and occurence was the expanded orogran on immunisation launched by the WHO in 1974. From this, it has seen the world's infants immunized against smallpox, diptheria and polio increase from 5% in 1974 to 80% on 1997. Thus, mass immunisation orograns have reduced the occurence of disease and the spread within populations, by preventing approximately three million deaths per year |
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Identify and describe the main features of epidemiology using kung cancer as an example |
Epidemiology: the studybof diseases that affect a large proportion of the population. It describes the patterns and cause of diseases in populations. For epidemiology to be valid it must: - focus on large, target popualtions, Use populations with unequal exposures to possible causes, allows for other factors that might affect the occurrence of disease. 3 types: Descriptive: patterns of distribution in populations Analytical: planned to test a specific hypothesis as the likely causes of the disease. E.g. case-control and cohort studies. Intervention: measures effectiveness/safety of a specific intervention e.g. effectiveness on the 'Quit' campaign. - for example: hills study on kung cancer, following 40 000 doctors over 10 years or richard dolls study comparing people eith lung cnacer to people with ither conditions. - the first lung cancer epidemic was in the 1930s - around 50 years after the mass production of cigarettesm e.g. Hill's was over 10 years. Epidemiological studies were conducted on a wide range of people of different ages, occupations, genders and exposures, people with the disease vs people whonare free of the disease e.g. doll collected information on people with lung cancer and people who don't have it. He established a strong correlation between smoking and lung cancer. Moreover, the two groups were studied for a long period of time as a result one was exposed to the cause the other wasn't such as can be seen in hills data with half the doctors smoked and half did not. As a result, the data is collected and analyzed. Thus, Hills data showing that the people who smoke had a higher incidence of lung cancer compared to those who didn't smoke. - therefore, there are many laws in place that aim to minimise harm occurring as a result of smoking. E.g. plaing packaging smoking on cigarettes, banning of smoking in public places |
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Identify the cause and effect relationship of smoking and lung cancer |
Lung cancer: the uncontrolled growth of tumours in the lung. Causes: - carcinogenic chemicals damge cells and cause DNA to mutate - resulting in the growth of tumours in the lungs. - as the tumour grows, the lungs' alveoli are destroyed, making breathing difficult and increasing the risk of kung collapse. - cancer can akso metastasise - spreading to other organs and impeding their functions. Epidemiological information: - 1880: mass production of cigarettes began. - 1930s: sudden lung cancer epidemic. - 1950s: first epidemiological studies showing cause-and-effect relationship - but they were inconclusive. - 1960: a study showed that smokers had a far decreased life expectancy. - 1964: surgeon's general advisory comittee concluded that there was a relationship b/w smoking and lung cancer. - statistics now show that there is a dorect correlation b/ amount smoked and risk of lung cancer. - smoking has now been linked with age groups and socioeconomic status. |
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Identify causes of non-infectious disease using examples of inherited diseases, nutritional deficiencies and environmental disease |
Inherited: genetics. Genetically transmitted and caused by errors in genetic information e.g. change in chromosome no. OR defect in a single gene. E.g. down dyndrome. Nutrional: caused by diets lacking proper balance and amount of nutrients e.g. vitamins or miners E.g. scurvy. Environmental: occurs from you lifestyle, physical factors in envrionment such as UV and exposure to chemicals. E.g. skin cancer. Disease: scurvy Occurence: nutritional Symptons: black or blue gums from internal haemorrhaging, joint pain, bleeding gums, loose teeth. Cause: vitamin C deficiency Treatment: increasing vitamin C intake through foods like oranges and strawberries Management: encouraging adequate vitamin C intake through fresh foods and supplements |
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Discuss the role of quaratine in preventing the spread of disease and plantz into and across australia |
Quarantine: isolating individuals for a period of time, in order to prevent the spread of contagious disease. Quarantine can also be applied to foods, plants and animals thatbare forbidden from passing from one area to another. - australias strict quarantine laws prohibit items such as: * live animals and plants * egg products * fruits and vegetables - because of these highly effective quaratine laws, australia has avoided outbreaks of disease such as: * mad cow disease * rabies. - certain items are quaratines across australia: * grape vines as they may carry phylloxera insect. * fruit is quaratined in NT, SA and TAS as it may catry the fruit fly. |
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Discuss the changing methids if dealing with plant and animal diseases, including shift in treatment and control |
- Treatment and control addresses diseases after they occur (e.g. medications to sick people, removing pests from plants, bariatric surgery on obese patients). - managing and prevention is before they occur (e.g. immunisation). The shift to management and prevention is beneficial for may reasons: 1. It addressed problems before they occur - hence allowing higher standards of living and quality of life of humans. 2. Saves money. 3. Vaccination for herd immunity, where those who cannot be immunised are protected by the immunity of the whole herd. Raising the vaccination rate to 95% will offer near 100% protection because of this. This is how diseases are eradicated together. - there may also be sime negatives to our shift to management and prevention, for example, management and prevention does involve the government enacting interventions before the 'need' to do so has manifested - as nobody is sick yet. Some people may view this as invasive. |
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Explain how public programs have controlled or prevented disease: |
Public health programs have prevented disease by spreading understanding about the causes and impacts of disease, and sharing ways that people can protect themselves (e.g. Slip Slop Slap campaign to educate people about the prevention of skin cancer from UV rays, or grusome pictures on cigarette packages which acts as a disincentive to prevent smoking and contracting cancer as a result). |
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