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113 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
4 Ways of Knowing Something to be True |
1. Authority 2. Reasoning 3. Experience 4. Scientific Method |
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Authority |
Accept validity of information from a source we judge to be an expert |
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Reasoning |
Arrive at conclusions using rules of logic and reasoning (a priori method) without relying experience |
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Experience |
Learning through direct observation or experience |
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Scientific Method |
Attempt to apply systematic, objective and empirical methods to search for the cause of natural events |
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Empiricism |
Process of learning things through direct observation or experience |
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Belief Perseverance |
Once a belief is established, tendency to hold on to belief even in face of contradictory evidence |
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Confirmation Bias |
Tendency to search out and pay attention only to information supporting your beliefs and ignoring contradictory information |
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Availability Heuristic |
Experience unusual or memorable events and overestimate how often similar events occur |
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Illusory Correlation |
Belief that one has observed an association between events but correlation does not exist |
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Scientific Method |
Attempt to apply systematic, objective and empirical methods to search for the cause of natural events |
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Probabilistic Statistical Determinism |
Determining if the probability that two events occur together is greater than chance |
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Data-Driven |
Conclusions are based on empirically gathered evidence |
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Goals of Psychology Research |
1. Description 2. Prediction 3. Explanation 4. Application |
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Description |
Identify regularly occurring sequences of events, including both stimuli or environmental events and responses or behavioral events |
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Prediction |
Regular and predictable relationships exist for psychological phenomena |
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Explanation |
Explain a behavior and know what caused it |
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Application |
Ways of applying principles of behavior learned through research |
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5 Criteria for Scientific Method |
1. Empirical 2. Objective 3. Systematic 4. Controlled 5. Public |
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Empirical |
Based on observation |
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Objective |
Verified by others |
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Systematic |
Made in a step-by-step fashion |
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Controlled |
Confusing factors eliminated |
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Public |
Built on previous research and open to critique and replication |
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Assumptions about Behaviors or Observations |
1. Lawful 2. Determinism 3. Discoverability |
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Lawful |
Every event is understood as a sequence of natural causes and effects |
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Determinism |
Events and behaviors have causes |
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Discoverability |
Through systematic observation, can determine causes of events and come up with explanations via repeated discoveries |
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Basic Research
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Describing, predicting and explaining fundamental principles of behavior and mental processes
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Applied Research
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Direct and immediate relevance to real-world problems
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Laboratory Research
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Performed in a controlled environment
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Field Research
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Environment more closely matches the situations we encounter in daily living
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Mundane realism
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How closely a study mirrors real-life experiences (field research)
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Experimental realism
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Concerns the extent to which a study forces participants to take the matter seriously
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Experimental confederate
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Something that appears to be part of the normal environment but is actually part of the study
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Quantitative Research
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Data are collected and presented in the form of numbers
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Qualitative Research
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Data not presented as numbers
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Operational Definition
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Experiment measures defined in terms of a set of “operations” or procedures to be performed
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Serendipity
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Discovering something while looking for something else entirely
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Teleology
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Phenomena are best comprehended and depicted with regard to their reasons and functions instead of their causes
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Definition of a Theory
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A set of logically consistent statements about a psychological phenomenon that:
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Relationship between Theory and Data
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Attributes of Good Theories
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Program of research
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Building research upon past research
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Replication
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Study that duplicates some or all of the procedures of a prior study
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Extension
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Resembles a prior study and usually replicates part of it, but it goes further and adds at least one new feature
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Partial replication
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Part of the study that replicates a portion of the earlier work
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Pseudoscience
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Appears to use scientific methods and tries hard to give that impression but is actually based on inadequate, unscientific methods and makes claims that are generally false or overly simplistic
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Effort Justification
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Idea is that after people expend significant effort, they feel compelled to convince themselves the effort was worthwhile
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Anecdotal Evidence
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Specific instances that seem to provide evidence for some phenomenon.
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General Principles (A through E)
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8.01 Institutional Approval
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Provide accurate information about research proposals and obtain approval prior to conducting the research. They conduct the research in accordance with the approved research protocol
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8.02 Informed Consent (IC) to Research
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Participants must be informed about:
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8.03 IC for Recording Voices & Images
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Obtain informed consent from participants before recording/image collection unless:
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8.04 Client, Student, & Subordinate Res Subj
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8.05 Dispensing With Informed Consent
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Dispense with informed consent only when:
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8.06 Offering Inducements
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8.07 Deception
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8.08 Debriefing
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8.09 Humane Care and Use of Animals
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8.10 Reporting Research Results
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8.11 Plagiarism
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Don’t present portions of other's work/data as own, even if other work/data source cited occasionally
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8.12 Publication Credit
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8.13 Duplicate Publication of Data
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Do not publish data previously published. This does not preclude republishing data when they are accompanied by proper acknowledgment
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8.14 Sharing Research Data for Verification
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8.15 Reviewers
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Psychologists who review material submitted for presentation, publication, grant, or research proposal review respect confidentiality of and proprietary rights in such information of those who submitted it
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Assent versus Consent in research
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NIH Revitalization Act
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Women and minorities must be included in clinical research supported by NIH
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Ethical Considerations with diverse populations
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Milgram study
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Tuskegee syphilis study
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400 African American with syphilis untreated between 1932-1972 to study effects of disease
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What to Include in a Protocol for PAU IRB
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Authorship Credit and Authorship Order on Faculty–Student Collaborations
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Depends on whose idea it is and who does the majority of the work
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Different sections of a manuscript/article and what information/content they contain
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Qualitative
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categorizing
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Quantitative
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describing size
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Nominal Scale
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Observations labeled/categorized
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Ordinal Scale
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Ranking observations in terms of size or magnitudes
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Interval Scale
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EQUAL differences (or intervals) between numbers on the scale reflecting differences in magnitude; “Ratios” of interval magnitudes = not meaningful
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Ratio Scale
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Numbers that reflect a ratio-relationship of magnitudes
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Discrete Variables
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Consists of separate, indivisible categories
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Dichotomous Variables
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Only two categories (yes/no)
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Continuous Variables
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Descriptive Statistics
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summarize the data collected from the sample of participants in your study
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Inferential Statistics
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draw conclusions about your data that can be applied to the wider population.
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Sample
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members of a defined group that are participants of the particular study
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Population
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population consists of all members of a defined group
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Mean
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average
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Median
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middle value of a range
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Mode
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most frequent value
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Outliers
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scores far removed from the other scores
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Standard Deviation
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average amount scores deviate from mean
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Variance
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standard deviation squared
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Construct
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abstract idea; hypothetical factor; cannot be observed directly
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Operational Definition
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a systematic, replicable way of measuring our best estimate (i.e., PROXY) of the construct.
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Reliability
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reproducibility - consistent and repeatable, representing minimal measurement error
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Validity
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measuring the intended construct and not something else
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Assumptions of Classical Test Theory
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Classical Test or Reliability Theory
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Generalizability Theory
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Test-Retest Reliability
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3 Important Components of Retest Reliability
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1. Change in the Mean
A. Random change - due to “typical” error
2. Measurement Error - The participants didn't have exactly the same weight in the first and second tests.
3. Retest Correlation - r of 1.00 represents perfect agreement between tests, and 0.00 represents no agreement at all.
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Kappa Coefficient
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Split-Half Reliability
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Kuder-Richardson coefficient
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Used for measures with dichotomous responses (yes/no)
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Cronbach's alpha
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Interobserver or Interrater Reliability
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Item to Total Correlation
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Measures the r of each of the items to the total scale. Items with a low r can be deleted.
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Parallel Items on Alternate Forms
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Standards of Reliability
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Factors that affect reliability
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Limitations of classical measurement theory
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Item Response Theory as an alternative
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