Research Methods (Chapter 2)

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Scientific Method

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A series of systematic steps researchers use to plan, conduct and report research.

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Empricial Evidence

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Data collected directly by observation, or more commonly in Psychology, by experimentation

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Seven Steps in Research by Use of Scientific Method

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- Identification of the problem

- Construction of a hypothesis

- Designing the Method

- Collecting Data

- Analysing Data

- Interpreting Data

- Report Research Findings

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Step 1: Identification of the Research Problem

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This involves identifying the problem or topic of interest to be researched. This can also involve researchers looking for previously conducted research into the topic.

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Step 2: Constructing a Hypothesis

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This involves the construction of a hypothesis which can then be used to test. This is also known as an educated guess because it is essentially a guess about what the results of the research will be.

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Research Hypothesis:

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A hypothesis is a testable prediction of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics (variables).

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Characteristics of an Hypothesis

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- Prepared as a carefully worded written statement.

- Expressed clearly and precisely.

- Written as a single sentence

- Stated in a way that can be tested

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Step 3: Designing the Method

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In this step, researchers determine how the hypothesis is best tested and the best way to collect the data. In this step, they must also decide which participants will be studied, the number of participants, how they will be selected and how they will be put into groups.

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Participants

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These are the people who will take part in the research

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Step 4: Collecting the Data

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In this step, researchers collect the required data and use a variety of data collection techniques to do so.

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Raw Data

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Raw Data refers to data that has not been processed or summarised in a meaningful way

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Step 5: Analysing the Data

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Once the data has been collected, the data then needs to be summarised, organised and represented in a meaningful way to determine whether or not the hypothesis was supported or not.

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Step 6: Interpreting the Data

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Once the data has been analysed, it needs to be interpreted and explained. This includes drawing a conclusion. Statistical testing involving mathematical procedures are used by the researcher to help them decide what the results mean.

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Conclusion

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A judgement about what the results of a research study mean.

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Generalisation

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A judgement about how widely the findings of a research study can be applied.

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Step 7: Reporting the findings

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This involves publishing the results of your study for others who may be interested in the same topic.

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Research Method

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A research method is a particular way of conducting a research study or investigation to collect data.

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Experimental Research

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This includes all the different types of experimental research designs. Each design involves the manipulation and control of research particpants' experiences in order to collect data.

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Descriptive Research

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Includes all the research methods that focus on studying aspects of behaviour and mental processes as they occur in a given time and place

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Experiment

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Used to test whether one variable influences or causes a change in another variable. This enables researchers to test the cause and effect between two variables.

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Variable

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Something that can vary in amount or kind over time.

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Independent Variable

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The variable that is manipulated or changed is called the independent variable.

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Dependent Variable

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The variable that is used to observe and measure the effects of the IV.

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Extraneous Variable

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A variable other than the IV that can cause a change in the DV. When one or more extraneous variables are present in an experiment, they can make it difficult to conclude with confidence that changes which have occurred in the DV have resulted because of the IV and not because of some other variable.

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Experimental Group

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This group is exposed to the experimental condition, essentially meaning they are exposed to the independent variable.

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Control Group

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This group is exposed to the control condition, essentially meaning the independent variable is absent. The control group provides a benchmark or comparison point for the researchers.

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Advantages of Experimental Research

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- One variable can be manipulated in order to test the effect on another variable (Cause - Effect)

- Can replicate the experiment to see if results are consistent

- Can report the experiment in a precise way so that others can also replicate the experiment

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Disadvantages of Experimental Research

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- The laboratory environment can alter the participants' behaviour which can change their behaviour to a point where it is not appropriate to generalise the findings.

- Some things cannot be measured in a laboratory.

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Sample

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A subsection, or smaller group, of research participants selected from a larger group of research interest.

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Population

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The entire group of research interest from which a sample is drawn from

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Sampling

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The process of selecting participants for a sample. A key goal of sampling is to ensure that the sample closely represents its population.

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Representative Sample

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A sample that is approximately the same as the population,from which it is drawn, in every important participant characteristic.

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Random Sampling

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A sampling procedure that ensures that every member of the population of research interest has a genuinely equal chance of being selected as a participant for the research study.

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Sampling Frame

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A complete list of all the people in the population.

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Stratified Sampling

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involves dividing the population to be sampled into different subgroups, or strata, then selecting a separate sample from each subgroup (called stratum) in the same proportions as they occur in the population of interest.

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Random Stratified Sampling

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Involves selecting a random sample from each stratum of a stratified sample

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Random Allocation

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In this process, participants selected for the experiment are just as likely to be in the experimental group as the control group.

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Descriptive Research

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Descriptive Research refers to the use of a research method that focuses on studying and describing one or more aspects of thoughts, feelings or behaviour as they occur at a given time and place.

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Convenience Sampling

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involves selecting participants who are readily available without any attempt to make the sample representative of the population.

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Case Study

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A case study is an indepth, intense investigation of some behaviour or event of interest in an individual, small group or situation. Often used when only small amounts of people are available to study.

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Advantages of Case Studies

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- Useful for obtaining information

- Do not need to control variables

- Source of good information for further research

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Disadvantages of Case Studies

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- Cannot be used to test a hypothesis

- Small Sample Size

- Susceptible to bias

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Observation

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Refers to any means of which a phenomenon (observable event) is studied.

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Observational Study

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involves collection of data by carefully watching and recording behaviour as it occurs.

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Naturalistic Observation

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Involves watching participants in their natural environment, without their knowledge. This is so, so that the behaviour observed isn't influenced by the researcher's presence.

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Participant Observation

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researchers participate in the activity and pretend to be part of the group being observed to gain information.

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Advantages of Observational Studies

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- Gain accurate, unbiased information

- Does not require participant co-operation

- Likely to be true results

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Disadvantages of Observational Studies

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- Difficult to determine cause of behaviour

- Observer bias may occue

- Information may not be recorded

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Data

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The information that is collected via research

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Qualitative Data

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Information about the ‘qualities’ or characteristics of what is being studied’. They may be descriptions, words, meanings, pictures, texts.

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Quantitative Data

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Are numerical information on the ‘quantity’ or amount of what is being studied; that is, how much of something there is

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Descriptive Statistics

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used for summarising and describing results. They include calculations such as percentages and means (‘averages’), and preparation of tables and graphs.

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Percentage

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A statistic that expresses a number as a fraction of 100.

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Table

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an orderly arrangement and display of data in columns and rows.

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Graph

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A pictorial representation of data.

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Histogram

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a graph which shows the frequency with which a particular score (or range of scores) occurs in a set of data.

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Pie Chart

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circular diagram that shows the proportions of values or scores for different categories of data.

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Line Graph

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pictorial representation that indicates the relationship between two factors, or two variables in an experiment

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Frequency Polygon

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a graph showing the frequency (‘how often’) of data using a line graph.

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Ethics

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refers to standards that guide individuals to identify good, desirable or acceptable conduct.

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Confidentiality

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Participants have a right to privacy, so any details of their involvement in a study cannot be revealed unless written consent is obtained.

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Voluntary Participation

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The experimenter must try and ensure that participants’ willingly consent to be involved in the research.

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Withdrawal Rights

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Participants are informed that they are free to participate, or decline to participate, or to withdraw from the study at any time. Participants must not experience any negative consequences from withdrawing from the study.

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Informed Consent

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Wherever possible participants must be appropriately informed of the type of study and reason(s) for the research. A consent form must be signed.

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Deception

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If for scientific reasons the full details of the experiment are not disclosed, a full debrief should be conducted explaining reasons at the conclusion of the study.

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Debriefing

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Participants must be informed of the purpose of the research at the conclusion of the study. Any issues or distress encountered by the participants should be dealt with appropriately by the experimenter.