Renal System And Digestive System

Front 1

Renal System has three functions:

Back 1

1) Excretion - the removal of organic waste products from the body fluids.

2) Elimination, the discharge of these waste products into the environment.

3) Homeostatic regulation of the volume and solute concentration of blood

Front 2

Major Organs in Renal System

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1) Kidney - produces urine

2) Ureter- transports urine toward the urinary bladder

3) Urinary bladder- temporarily stores urine prior to urination

4) Urethra- releases urine to the exterior environment, and in male it transports semen

Front 3

Kidneys

Back 3

They reside inside the back muscles in the upper abdominal cavity. They are retroperitoneal structures behind the peritoneum layer. Easiest to access through back

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Hilum

Back 4

Is the point of entry for the renal artery (delivers oxygenated blood to kidney) and the renal nerves. Also point of exit for the ureter and the renal vein (takes deoxygnated blood to heart)

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Cortex

Back 5

Outer region of kidney

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Medulla

Back 6

Inner section of kidney

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Cardiac Output

Back 7

20-25% of 500 ml of Cardiac output goes to the kidneys

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Major Functions of the Kidneys

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1) Regulate blood volume + composition

2) Regulate blood pressure

3) Regulate certain aspects of metabolism

4) Endocrine function (erythropoietin EPO to produce RBC)

5) Regulate pH (long term)

Front 9

Nephron

Back 9

Functional unit of kidney, found in cortex

Roles

1) Filter (pass) blood, clean blood

2) Reabsorb what is filtered (99%)

3) Secrete or eliminate products.

Anything filtered and secreted but not reabsorbed is eliminated from blood

Front 10

Filtrate

Back 10

Solution produced during filtration

Front 11

GFR

Back 11

Glomerular Filtration Rate. The rate of filtrate formation at the Glomerulus. 124ml/min. 180L/day

Front 12

Measuring GFR (how well the kidneys function)

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Endogenous (made in the body)

1) Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN)

2) Serum Creatinine (muscles)

Exogenous (outside of body)

radioactive istopes

Front 13

Parts of Nephron

Vascular Components

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20% of blood from arota to renal artery. Renal artery split until afferent arterioles. Takes blood to nephrones, give rise to a the glomerulus capillary. Filtration is a passive process, things that are small and not charged. The glomerulus has the highest capillary pressure of 55-60 mmHg instead of usual 30. Gives rise to Efferent Arteriole which gives rise to peritubular capillaries where secretion and re-absorption occurs.

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Peritubular Capillaries

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Are located next to the nephrons. As blood leaves the kidneys, minerals and ions are reabsorbed through the capillaries back into the blood. Ions that are not needed are excreted through the capillaries and sent to the bladder.Blood travels into the kidneys to be filtered, and then the filtered blood exits the kidneys through the peritubular capillaries. These capillaries completely surround the tubules, which contain all of the fluid and particles that have been removed from the blood. It is through the peritubular capillaries that the important nutrients needed by the body are reabsorbed back into the blood. Maintain concentration gradient Sites of secretion and filtration and reabsorption

Front 15

Parts of Nephron

Tubular Components

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The Renal Corpuscle is made up of Bowman's Capsule and the Glomerulus. Filtration occures from Glomerulus across Bowman's capsule. Osmotic Pressure is 300 and said to be isotonic (solution to solvent ratio is same). Filter 124 ml/min of filtrate into nephrons which same same pressure as blood 300. 99.9% of filtrate is reabsorbed through carrier mediated, simple diffusion and active transport

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Step 1

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Filter 124 ml/min at same osmotic pressure as blood in Bowman's capsule

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Step 2

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70% of all stuff we filter is reabsorbed in proximal tubule. Osmotic pressure stays the same. Simple diffusion

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Step 3

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Loop of Henle. Have a descending loop which is only permeable to absorb water through passive process. While ascending loop is active re-absorption of electrolytes. (25% reabsorption)

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Counter-current Multiplication

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When we reabsorb electrolytes through active process in ascending loop such as Na, Cl, K. This multiples and increases passive reabsorption of water in descending loop

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Isotonic

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30/10 = 3 As enters proximal tubule same concentration

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Descending Loop

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Lose water and lose volume so osmotic pressure is 30/5 = 6. Hypertonic solution has less water. Solute/Solvent

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Ascneding loop

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lose solutes. 10/5 = 2. Volume goes down, lose solute so hyptonic

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Solvent is always water. ATP pulls out water 20-30% in descending loop

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Osmosis

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is driven by electrolytes concentration gradient

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Interstitial Fluid

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Is outside of loop

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After loop of Hnele

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Goes to distal tubule

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Distal Tubule

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Sensitive to aldestrone (produced in adernal gland) and ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) which promotes retention of solution. So reabsorb sodium so also retains water. Thus volume goes down.

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After Distal Tubule

Back 28

Leads to Collecting Duct System. Change in osmotic pressue

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After Collecting Duct System

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Leads to the Renal tubules (pyraminds) leads to bladder and is eliminated

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Some things can't be filtered so must be secreted. Actively moved from blood to distal tubules which takes to bladder and secreted as urine

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Bladder has stretch receptors in destrusor muscle. 150mL brain gets signal to release urine. Controlled by autonomic nervous system. Parasympthetic S2-S4 release. Symphatic L1-L2 relax.

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Diabetes

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Occurs when water is being pulled into tubules in loop of henle instead of being pushed outward in descending loop. Due to osmotic pressure being larger than usual which leads to increased urinination and thirst

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Eliminate salt to lower high blood pressure

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As in ascending loop has salt coming back. Block reabsorption of salt, decrease gradient, less fluid reabsorbes into body. Lowers volume of blood thus pressure is lowered.

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Hypertensive

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Close pumps in loop of henle. So eliminate gradient cause water to leave body, lose volume to lower pressure and decrease venous return and stroke volume

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Autoregulation

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local blood flow regulation. Maintain an adequate GFR despite changes in local blood pressure and blood flow.

Front 35

Myogenic Mechanism

Back 35

How arteries and arterioles react to an increase or decrease in blood pressure. Changes to diameters of afferent arterioles, effert arterioles and glomerular capilaries maintain GFR. Afferent- bring blood, efferent- bring blood out of glomerulus. Do it independt of blood pressure. So reacts to change in blood pressure in order to keep the flow of blood constant

Front 36

Capillary Pressure in glomerulus

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Is highest due to high diffusion coefficient. Is determined by myogenic responses mostly and hydrostatic and osmotic pressure

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Renin - Angiotensin - Aldostorne System

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Contact between the distal tubule and afferent arteriole is JG (Juxtaglomerular) apparatus. Specialized cells mascula densa sense change in blood pressure. Stimulate JG cells to secrete hormone called renin

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Renin

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Is an enzyme that acts on circultaory system, reacts with angiotensinogen protein to form angiotensin I, which goes to lungs and converted to angiotensin II by enzyme ACE in lungs (Angiotensin-converting enzyme).

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Angiotensin II

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Goes to blood vessles, causes blood vessels to contrict. Increases TPR. In adernal gland releases aldestrone which conserves Na +, increases blood volume, EDV, SV, CO and GFR all increase so everything is back to normal following lowered blood pressure. Powerful vessel constrictor (narrow blood vessels)

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Hormones + Kidney

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1) Renin

2) Erythryprotein - stimulate production of red blood cells. 20% of CO

3) Intermediate step in synthesis of vitamin B 12

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Urine

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Something filtered or secreted but not reabsorbed, is eliminated from blood

Front 42

Urine transportation

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Transported by Ureter, stored in bladder. Which is made up of detrusor muscle (stretch receptors). Sends message to brain at 150 mL. As controlled by autonomic nerevous system. Which have no conrol parasympehtic release and symphatic relax. Somatic Nervous system (Pudendal nerve) can be controlled

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60% of Body weight is H2O. Factors affecting amount of H2O in body

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Water retention, amount of body fluids, overall health, gender, age and % of body fat. Body weight is based on fluid retention

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2 major compartment of body fluids

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Intracellular Fluid (ICF) - 67% of all H2O (fluid inside cells, cytosol)

Extracellular Fluid (ECF) - 33% of all H2O (fluid outside of cells) - First place to lose/gain H2O

Made up of Plasma 8 % of all H2O and Interstital Fluid 25% (solution that surrounds cells)

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Separation of ICF and ECF

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ICF and ECF are separated by a semi-permeable membrane. Osmosis of H2O is driven by osmotic pressure. Move from high to low, as high osmotic pressure indicates high concentration of solutes which attracts H2O (solvent). Move from hypotonic to hypertonic. H2O moves through membranes such as blood vessels

Front 46

Digestion

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Two Types which begin in the oral cavity

1) Mechanical - happens when grind upon food by using teeth

2) Chemical - happens with release of enzymes/chemicals

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Mechanical Digestion

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Requires teeth and muscles begins

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Chemical Digestion in Oral Cavity

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Driven by salivary glands which are all paired

1) Parotid (largest) where mumps occurs

2) Submandibular

3) Sublingual

Salivary glands are controlled by parasymphatic nerves (stimulates the production of saliva) and symphatic which shuts down everything. Make 1.0 L of saliva daily

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Saliva Enzymes

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Amylase - allows to start breakdown of carbohydrates, from polysachride to monosachrides.

Lingual Lipase - enzyme breaks small amounts of lipids

Lysozyme - part of immune system

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Pharynx

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Common pathway of food, water and air. Throat. Tube that funnels food into esophagus or air into the layrnx

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Esophagus

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Move food from oral cavity to stomach through peristalsis which is a series of wave-like muscle contractions

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Enteric Nervous System (ENS)

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It is a nervous system that is only found in digestive system. Begins in the esophagus and it works with autonomic nervous system

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Gastrointestinal wall

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Are the 4 tissue layers that covers organs of the gastrointestinal tract (esophagus, stomach and intestines) from inside to out

1) Mucosa - has its own immune system (GALT Gut-associated lymphoid tissue)> Smooth muscle

2) Submucosa

3) Muscularis

4) Adventitia

The majority of the smooth muscle is in the submucosa and muscularis

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Epithelium

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Innermost layer of the mucosa

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VAGUS

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Is the 10th carnial nerve, parasymphtic and it controls digestion

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Stomach

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Below heart and is connected to the esophagus. Made up of 4 sections.

1) Cardia - smallest section connects eosphagus and stomach

2) Fundus - connects to diaphram

3) Body - largest region, a mixing tank for ingested food

4) Pylorus (lowest part) connects to the duodenum (small intestine)

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Simple Columnar Epithlium

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Larger than wide. Responsible for secretion and absorption. From stomach to large intenstine

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Chyme

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The acidic fluid that passes from the stomach to the small intestine consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food. Expelled from stomach to the duodenum.

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Rugae

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Are highly convoluted folds that make up the stomach to increase the surface area and thus diffusion as Fick's Law

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Gastric Pits

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Are openings to gastric gland

Front 61

Gastric Gland contains many cells:

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Contains Chief Cells, Parietal Cells, G Cells and Mucus Cells. The area of protein digestion

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Chief Cells

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Secrete pepsinogen an inactive enzyme with HCI is converted to pepsin which is a protein digesting enzyme

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Parietal Cells

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Proton pump to form HCI to make pepsin. Also secrete intrinsic Factor (glycoprotein) which can cause amenia and is used to absorb vitamin B12 for production of RBC

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G Cells

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produce Gastrin a hormone which prepares stomach (muscles) for intake of food

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Mucus Cells

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Protect stomach against acids and digestive enzymes

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Aspirin and alcohol

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are two compounds absorbed through mucosa

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Digestive Tract

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From esophagus to large intestine and pancreas. Inner linings of the mucosa consists of enteroendocrine cells which are tall and wide cells that reabsorb and secrete particles

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Submucosa/Muscularis

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Contains the Enteric Nervous system. Which coordinates local movement. Significant amount of smooth muscles are used. Parasymphatic control the outer part

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Small Intestine

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Made up of 3 components.

1) Duodenum - 10 inches (receive food from stomach)

2) Jejunum - 8ft

3) ilenum - 12ft

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Mucosa

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Highly convoluted, in order to maximize surface area.

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Microvilli

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Brush border and used to increase surface area. Simple columnar cells in small intestine have Microvilli.

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Gastric Inhibitory Peptide

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GIP hormone in duodenum feedback to stomach and digestive track to shut off as not ready. Tough to digest lipids, takes time

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Secretein

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Go to pancreas from Duodenum, cause release of bicarb HCO3. Acidity of stomach is 1.5, bi-card used as a buffer to neutralise acidity. Bring it up to 4.5

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Cholecystokinin

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CCK- released in presence of fat in the Duodenum. Gets to Gall Bladder and squeezes it to release bile the beginning of lipid digestion

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Duodenum

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small surface area has other enzymes to digest other stuff. However does not reabsorb alot of stuff. So most digestion occures in the jejunum and ileum. Need pH to go up

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Pancreas

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Retropenial organ. Exocrine used in digestive system. Aciniar Cells are responsible for exocrine functions. Release compounds to facilitate digestions. Release lypases, HCO3.

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Pancreas Enzymes for protein digestion

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Release

1) Typsinogen

2) Chymotrypsinogen

3) Proteases

Proteases are enzymes that break large protein complexes from endothailial (first layer in mucosa) cells in small intestine.

Front 78

Role of pesin

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Pepsin release in acidic environment 1-2 pH, gets to the duodenum where pH is increased to 4-5. Binds to typsinogen to form trypsin. Trypsin forms chymotrypsin from Chymotrypsinogen. These enzymes break down proteins to amino acids.

Inactive enzymes end with inogen and active enzyems end with ypsin

Front 79

Liver

Back 79

Largest internal organ. It produces bile which is important in the absorption of lipids.

Front 80

Bile

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Is produced in liver, important for lipid digestion. However it is transported to the gall bladder by the hepatic duct

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The right and the left hepatic ducts collects bile from all bile ducts of liver lobes, these ducts unite to form common hepatic duct, which leaves liver to cystic duct which leads to gall bladder. Common bile duct is formed in union of cystic duct and common hepatic duct

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NA

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Proteolytic

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Enzymes that break down proteins

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Mucos Neck Cells

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Secrete mucous, which protects linings of digestive system, used as a lubricant

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Primary building block of gall stones is cholesterol and liver important in production of cholestoral

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NA

Front 85

Liver

Back 85

Whatever ingest food goes to liver, everything that goes into body enters liver unless secreted. First-Pass

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Liver has 4 lobes

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Right Lobe- Largest

Quardurate and caudate lobes only seen posteriorly.

Quadrate lobe is associated with gallbladder. Caudate lobe with inferior vena cava

Left Lobe

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Lobules

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Division of liver contains central vein. Sinusoids are pathways that connect lobules to central vein. Sinusoids are made out of hepatocytes (liver cells). Sinsuoids carry blood.

Central Veins drain blood to inferior Vena Cava

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Digestive Tract - Portal Vein - GI gastrointestinal - 80% venous and 20% arterial

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Hepatocytes

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Make bile

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Cancer Cells

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Go to sinusaides then to central vein then inferior vena cava and rest of body

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Large Intestine

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Absorb reminder of water that is left over from small intestine. E. Coli is used in digestion of food. Works in mass movements, volume activates movement.