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147 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Close to __% of class time spent in American colleges/universities is spent listening |
90 |
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Students with the highest grades are usually those with___ |
The strongest listening skills |
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One average you will hear ___ words a year |
1 billon |
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Word Gap |
By the time a poor-income child turns 2, he or she will hear 30 million less words than a middle or rich income family |
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Listening Styles |
Action-oriented Content-oriented People-oriented Time-oriented |
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Action-Oriented Listening |
Focus on immediately getting to the meaning of the message & determining what response is required. Like messages that are direct, concise, & error-free Get easily frustrated by those who ramble or take long to get to the point |
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Content-Oriented Listening |
Favor depth & complexity of info & message. Willing to spend more time listening, pay careful attention to what's being said, & enjoy discussing & thinking about the message after |
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People-Oriented Listening |
Willing to invest time & attention in communications, yet they are differentiated y their interest in being supportive of friends & strengthening relationships. Notice mood & body language of speakers, & express more empathy towards them |
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Time-Oriented Listening |
Concern with managing time. See time as a precious resource to be conserved & protected. Exhibit impatience & rush interactions. |
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Hearing |
Merely receiving messages in a passive way |
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Listening |
Actively paying attention to what you're hearing- processing the message to decide on its meaning & retaining what you've heard & understood |
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Listening Process (Ladder) |
Discriminative- Bottom Rung Comprehensive Appreciative Critical Constructive- Top Rung |
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Culprits Behind Poor Listening |
-Unprocessed note taking -Nonlistening -Interruptive listening -Agenda-driven listening -Nervous listening -External noise -Internal noise |
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Unprocessed Not Taking |
Copying speaker's words verbatim without considering what you're writing down. Hearing words, but not listening. |
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Nonlistening |
People simply do not pay attention to what they're hearing |
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Interruptive Listening |
One person constantly interrupts another. |
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Agenda-Driven Listening |
Public speakers who focuses solely on the mechanics of their presentation. Speaker might ignore raised hands and comments from audience. |
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Argumentative Listening |
People who feel in conflict with individuals. Selective listening- listening to only as much as they need in order to feel their own arguments. |
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Nervous Listening |
People that feel compelled to talk through silences because they're uncomfortable with conversational lapses or pauses. |
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External Noise |
Chatter, street noise, etc. |
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Internal Noise |
Thoughts that make it hard to concentrate |
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Maximizing Your Audience's Listening |
-Audience surveillance -Anticipate ineffective listening before your speech -Encourage active listening during your speech -Providing a speech critique can help you & the speaker |
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Audience Surveillance |
Paying attention to an audience's nonverbal & verbal responses while giving a speech |
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Speech Critique |
Written or oral feedback offered after a presentation |
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Guidelines for Speech Critique |
-Take notes -Identify main points -Consider the speech's objectives & provide constructive criticism -Support your feedback with examples -Be ethical |
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Mediated Communication |
Messages transmitted through a "mechanical or electronic medium" -Preparation & delivery for a speech involving mediated communication is similar to that for a traditional face-to-face speech |
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Technological Changes have Created Increasing Options for Public Speakers to Reach an Audience |
-F2F presentations remain the gold standard of PSing formats -Mediated comm opens up new channels for distributing & viewing presentations |
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The Expansion of Mediated PSing |
Situations where you may need to deliver a mediated speech: -Recording presentation for class -Skype interview -YouTube video |
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Real-Time/Synchronous Presentation |
-Delivered directly to the audience as the speaker presents the message from a remote location -Similar to a F2F presentation, except that the audience & speaker are not together |
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Pre-Recorded/Asynchronous Presentation |
Recorded by the speaker for later viewing by one or more audiences |
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Advantages to Mediated Presentations |
-Flexibility (multiple, different locations) -Savings (no travel expenses) -Audience Size (no limit) |
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Advantages of Pre-Recorded Speeches |
-Do-overs -Pause & rewind buttons -Saying it for the ages (have a permanent record) -Audience feedback -Audience interaction -Option to save |
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Challenges of Mediated Presentations |
-Loss of naturalness -Loss of immediacy -Decreased nonverbal communication -Diminished feedback -Difficulty managing distractions -Technological difficulties |
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Loss of Naturalness |
Naturalness is determined by the extent to which it matches the features of F2F interaction |
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Key Factors that Contribute to Naturalness |
-Sharing the same space -Sending & receiving messages quickly -Being able to send & receive both verbal & nonverbal expressions |
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Loss of Immediacy |
-Sense of connection is reduced when the speaker & audience don't share the same space -Speakers face greater challenges establishing credibility & building a common ground -May feel less of a bond with the audience when presenting to a camera |
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Decreased Nonverbal Communication |
Mediated presentations limit & alter how listeners see & interpret the speaker's nonverbal messages |
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Diminished Feedback |
Speaker can't gauge audience interest, comprehension, or positive reactions |
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Difficulty Managing Distractions |
Multitasking: juggling multiple tasks with & without technological devices -Listeners are more likely to multitask when the speaker is in a different location -Speaker loses opportunities to use nonverbal strategies to regain audience attention -Little to no opportunity to notice outside distractions |
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Technological Difficulties |
Prevent them by -practicing with them beforehand -have backup device -open in different browser if stops working -contact help team -consider switching to diff video service |
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Recording your Classroom Speech: Primary source of light should be... |
Behind camera operator & directed toward the speaker (Generally better to have more light than less) |
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Recording your Classroom Speech: Attire |
Single, neutral colors Record a practice speech to see how you & your speech setting will appear to audience |
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Recording your Classroom Speech: Camera Positioning |
-Be sure view is wide enough to capture movement & gestures -Avoid "talking head" shot -If cell phone camera is used, put on flat surface -Position the camera to level of eyes -Changing the camera shot presents challenges, but can help enliven your speech |
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Special Considerations for Real-Time Presentations |
-Practice with equipment -Select a robust Internet connection (ethernet connection is preferred) -Use group chat/screensharing -Create opportunities for audience interaction -Solicit feedback through an alternative medium |
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Epideictic Rhetoric |
Speaking that praises or blames -1 of 3 genres of oratory identified by Aristotle -Used to celebrate timeless virtues during occasions such as funerals or holidays -Special-occasion speeches mark some of the most important events in our lives |
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Types of Special-Occasion Speeches |
-Speech of introduction -Speech of presentation -Speech of acceptance -Speech to memorialize or eulogize -Speech to celebrate -After-dinner speech Some events, like Oscars, include multiple types of special-occasion speeches |
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Speech of Introduction |
Also called the "speech before the speech" Prepares the audience for the "main event" by giving context for the upcoming speaker, performer, or event |
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Speech of Presentation |
Explains the background & significance of an award & why the recipient is deserving of it |
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Speech of Acceptance |
-Expresses gratitude for the award -Extols the award's significance to them & others -Acknowledge other's support & contributions |
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Speech to Eulogize |
-Comments on the passing of an individual
-Celebrates his or her life -Often shares personal reflections & stories about the deceased |
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Speech to Memorialize |
Uses same approach as eulogy, but is expanded to honor the sacrifice & heroism of a group of people |
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Speech to Celebrate |
Given at events representing rites of passage Toasts, special observance that focuses on the milestone achieved & recognizes the joy & pride participants feel |
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After-Dinner Speech |
-Can follow or precede a meal -Light in tone -Helps a speaker entertain listeners or set the stage for an event that follows the meal |
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Each Type of Special-Occasion Speech... |
Serves a unique purpose & evokes a different mood To deliver any of them effectively, you must apply certain common skills |
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Special Occasion Speech: Appealing to Your Audience's Emotions |
Audience will likely predisposed to experiencing a particular feeling during the occasion Your job in giving the speech is to signal when it's time for that emotion to come to the surface |
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Special Occasion Speech: Matching Your Delivery to the Mood of the Occasion |
Your demeanor & words should match the overall mood of the special occasion for which you're giving a speech |
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Special Occasion Speech: Adapting to Your Audience's Expectations |
Listener's cultural background, age, values, & other characteristics all affect how they perceive a special occasion & what they expect from a speech delivered during that occasion
Before giving any special-occasion speech, be sure you're familiar with your audience's expectations |
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Special Occasion Speech: Evoking Shared Values |
Many effective special-occasion speeches appeal to values shared by members of the audience & the speaker Remind listeners that you and they are connected. |
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Special Occasion Speech: Respecting Time Constraints |
Most special occasions are carefully planned affairs Make sure you know beforehand when you're scheduled to speak & what time your time allotment is -Stick to these logistics when delivering your presentation |
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Small Group |
Limited number of people gathered for a specific purpose |
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Group Dynamics |
The ways in which members related to one another & view their functions Can determine whether a group achieves its mission |
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Ways to Select a Leader |
-Designated leader -Implied leader -Emergent leader |
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Designated Leader |
Selected by an external authority |
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Implied Leader |
Has preexisting authority or skills particularly well suited to the task at hand |
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Emergent Leader |
Comes to be recognized as a leader by the group's members over time |
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Leading Meetings |
-Address procedural needs -Model the behavior you expect -Facilitate discussion -Keep members on task in a friendly manner -Help members avoid groupthink -Facilitate decisions |
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Address Procedural Needs |
-When & where will meetings take place? -Who will start meetings & record notes? -How will notes get circulated? |
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Model the Behavior you Expect |
-Avoid interrupting others or dismissing their questions or comments -Do not dominate discussions or decisions |
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Facilitate Discussion |
-Ensure that all members of your group have the opportunity to participate in each discussion |
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Groupthink |
The tendency to accept ideas & info uncritically because of strong feelings of loyalty or single-mindedness within the group |
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What does Groupthink do? |
-Erodes the lively & open exchange of ideas necessary for informed decisions -Suggests that being increasingly amiable with other member of a group can decrease independent, critical thinking, & replace it with groupthinl |
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Facilitate Decisions |
-When group members have thoroughly discussed the issue at hand, help them come to a decision -Never use your power to manipulate the group |
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Ways to Manage Conflict |
-Help organize the group's presentation -Refer to ideas by topic, not by person -Resolve conflicts quickly -Focus on tasks, not disagreements -Manage disruptive emotions |
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Help Organize Group's Presentation |
-You don't necessarily need to make all the decisions yourself, but you do need to coordinate the decisions to be made |
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Refer to Ideas by Topic, Not by Person |
-Focus on the content of specific suggestions rather than attributing those suggestions to individual members -When ideas get associated with an individual, that person may become defensive if the proposal is criticized, even if it has real shortcomings |
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Resolve Conflicts Quickly |
-Try to resolve distracting conflicts rather than allowing them to continue or repressing them -Give each disagreeing member an equal opportunity to explain their perspective -You may ultimately need to offer your opinion or vote in order to break a deadlock on an issue |
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Focus on Tasks, Not Disagreements |
-Articulate desired changes in behavior rather than criticizing individuals -A personality clash may better be solved by discussing the problem in private with the members who disagree |
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Manage Disruptive Emotions |
-Even after a conflict has been resolved, members may still feel angry, upset or embarrassed, and may withdraw from the group -Bring reluctant members back into the discussion by inviting their input on important issues |
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3 Types of Member Roles |
-Task oriented -Maintenance-oriented -Self-oriented |
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Task-Oriented Roles |
-Initiators -Information Providers -Information Gatherer's -Indicators -Clarifiers -Evaluators -Synthesizers -Recorders |
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Initiators
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Suggest the group's goals & offer new ideas or propose new solutions-Info providers offer facts relevant to the issue under discussion |
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Information Providers |
Offer facts relevant to the issue under discussion |
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Information Gatherers |
Ask other members to share facts they know, or they seek out needed info from other sources |
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Elaborators |
Add supporting facts, examples, or ideas to a point that someone else has made during the discussion |
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Clarifiers |
Attempt to make the meaning of another member's statement more precise |
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Evaluators |
Offer their judgements about the ideas put forward during a discussion |
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Synthesizers |
Identify emerging agreements & disagreements among the group as a whole
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Recorders |
Take notes during the meeting, track major decisions & plans made by the group |
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Maintenance-Oriented Roles |
-Harmonizers -Compromisers -Encouragers -Gatekeepers -Norm facilitators |
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Harmonizers |
Decrease tension in the group |
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Compromisers |
Attempt to find common ground between adversaries within the group, & offer solutions that may be palatable to both side |
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Encouragers |
Inspire other group members by complimenting their ideas & work |
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Gatekeepers |
Facilitate the exchange of info among group members |
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Norm Facilitators |
Reinforce healthy group norms & discourage unproductive ones |
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Self-Oriented Roles |
-Blockers -Withdrawers -Dominators -Distracters |
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Blockers |
Stop the group from moving toward its objective by refusing to accept group decisions or the |
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Withdrawers |
Refuse to make any contribution or to participate in the discussion |
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Dominators |
Monopolize group interactions |
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Distracters |
The opposite of harmonizers- send the group in irrelevant directions with off-topic comments or extraneous conversation |
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Tips for Participating in a Small Group |
-Prepare for group meetings -Treat other members courteously -Listen interactively -Participate, don't dominate -Participate authentically -Fulfill your commitments |
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Reflective-Thinking Process |
Particularly effective approach to making a group decision |
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5 Steps of Reflective-Thinking Process |
1. Define the problem 2. Analyze the problem 3. Establish criteria for solutions 4. Generate possible solutions 5. Select the best solution |
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Symposium |
-Several of all group members speak to the audience in turn -Plan carefully & systematically by agreeing on which topic each member will address, how they will present it, & how much time is available -Each speaker should introduce & provide a transition to the next speaker -Organize it as you would an individual speech by including intro, body, & conclusion ----have the 1st speaker give intro ----have the final speaker present a conclusion summarizing each presenter's main idea |
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Panel Discussion |
-Group members converse among themselves at a table while the audience watches & listens -A panel requires a moderator -Atmosphere usually more casual than a symposium ----Talk about panel discussion in advance with you group so that you all know which questions or topics you want to bring up |
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What does a Panel Moderator do? |
-Introduces panelists -Leads group discussion & monitors time -Ensures that each panel member participates -May participate in the discussion |
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What do Panel Member do? |
-Participate in the discussion -Give each other an opportunity to talk -Be tactful & professional when disagreeing with another panelist |
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Single Group Representative |
1 person is responsible for presenting on behalf of an entire group -Check that the group has decided on the best approach to the presentation -Be sure that all members have input -As the speaker, distinguish whether you are representing your own views, those of some members of the group, or a consensus of all group members |
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Word Choice/Diction |
Requires consideration of audience, occasion,& nature of one's message when choosing language for a speech |
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Emotive Language |
Deliberate choice of words to elicit emotion |
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Denotative Meaning |
Exact, literal dictionary defintion |
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Connotative Meaning |
An association that comes to mind when people hear or read the word |
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Slanting |
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Picturesque |
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Short Cuts |
Cliches- Slogans- |
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Definition of Persuasion: Osborn/Osborn |
Art of gaining fair & favorable consideration for our points of view |
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Definition of Persuasion: Beebe/Beebe |
Processes of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavior |
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3 Types of Claims |
Fact, Value, Policy |
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Fact Claim |
Asserts that something is true or false. Fact claims that are debatable make for especially strong persuasive speech topics. |
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Value Claim |
Attaches a judgement (good, bad, moral, immoral) to a subject |
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Policy Claim |
Advocates actions by organizations, institutions, or members of your audience |
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Question of Policy deal with 3 Basic Issues |
-Need -Plan -Practicality |
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Toulmin Model of Argument |
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Toulmin Model Details |
-Stephen Toulmin (1958): The Uses of Argument -Modern way we look at how arguments are made -3 main factors: claim, data, warrant |
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Elaborate Likelihood Model |
Shows 2 ways audience members may evaluate a persuasive speaker's message |
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Central Route for ELM |
Denotes a high level of elaboration- a mental process that involves actively processing a speaker's argument. They reflect on the message and consider it in the light of their preexisting ideas about the issues. More likely to develop a positive attidute when the speaker's attitudes are strong |
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Peripheral Route of ELM |
Don't actively process your message (low elaboration). More easily influenced by cues that are tangential to the message's content (attractiveness of speaker, flashy presentation aids), don't carefully consider speaker's arguments |
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Social Judgement Theory |
The key point of the Social Judgment Theory is that attitude change (persuasion) is mediated by judgmental processes and effects. Put differently, persuasion occurs at the end of the process where a person understands a message then compares the position it advocates to the person's position on that issue. A person's position on an issue is dependent on: -The person's most preferred position (their anchor point) -The person's judgment of the various alternatives (spread across their latittudes of acceptance, rejection, and non commitment) -The person's level of ego-involvement with the issue. |
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Ethos |
Credibility as a speaker |
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Logos |
Evidence & reasoning behind your message -Using reasoning -Avoiding logical fallacies |
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Inductive Reasoning |
Generalizing from facts, instances, or examples, then making a claim based on that generalization |
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4 types of Inductive Reasoning |
1. Example reasoning 2. Comparison reasoning 3. Sign reasoning 4. Casual reasoning |
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Example Reasoning |
You present specific instances to support a general claim |
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Representative Example |
An instance typical of the class it represents |
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Comparison Reasoning |
You argue that 2 instances are similar, so that what you know is true for one instance is likely to be true for another |
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Sign Reasoning |
You claim that a fact is true because indirect indicators (signs) are consistent with that faces |
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Causal Reasoning |
You argue that one event has caused another |
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Logical Fallacy: Hasty Generalization
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When a speaker bases a conclusion on limited or unrepresentative examples |
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Logical Fallacy: Ad Populum (bandwagon) |
You assume something is true or not true just because most people believe that it is true or not true |
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Logical Fallacy: Ad Hominem (personal attack) |
Personal attacks against an opponent rather than addressing the issue in question |
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Logical Fallacy: Straw Person |
If you replace your opponent's real claim with a weaker claim you can more easily rebut |
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Logical Fallacy: Slippery Slope |
If you argue against a policy because you assume (without proof) that it will lead to some second policy that is undesirable |
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Logical Fallacy: False Dilemma |
If you claim that there are only two possible choices to address a problem, that one of those choices is wrong or infusible, & that therefore your listeners must embrace the other choice |
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Logical Fallacy: Appeal to Tradition |
If you argue that an idea or policy is good simply because people have accepted or followed it for a long time |
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Pathos |
Evoking your listeners' emotions. -Using emotional appeals (effective word choice can strengthen the power of an emotional appeal) -Ensuring ethical use of pathos |
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Using Emotional Appeals: Fear Appeal |
An argument that arouses fear in the minds of audience members |
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Ensuring Ethical use of Pathos |
Ethical speakers must ensure that the language they select accurately describes the ideas they are discussing |
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Ensuring Ethical use of Pathos: Loaded Language Fallacy |
When emotionally charged words convey meaning that cannot be supported by facts presented by the speaker |
