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60 Cards in this Set
- Front
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Exposure to Prosocial Behaviour
MEDIA INFLUENCES ON PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR |
It is often thought that antisocial acts dominate television. In one content analysis conducted by Kunkel et al (1996) found that two thirds of the children's programmes sampled contained at least one act of violence. However, there is clear evidence for a comparable level of prosocial acts. Greenberg (1980) analysed popular children's programmes in the US and found the equivalent number of prosocial and antisocial acts in any hour.
Woodward (1999) found that US programmes for preschool children did have high levels of prosocial content; 77% of programmes surveyed contained at least one prosocial lesson. However, it also found that only 4 of the top 20 most watched programmes for under 17's had any prosocial lessons at all. |
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Acquisition of Prosocial Norms
MEDIA INFLUENCES ON PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR |
Social Learning Theory (SLT) suggests that we learn behaviours through observation. The likelihood of the behaviours being repeated depends on the consequences. Unlike the depiction of antisocial acts on television, prosocial acts are more likely to represent pre-established social norms. This means the prosocial lessons are likely to reinforce our social norms than contrast with them.
Some studies, such as Poulos et al's (1975) altruism study only look at one specific prosocial act. The findings show the children are most likely to repeat the act if they were given specific instruction rather than abstract social norms to follow. Learning social norms is less common, except when viewing is paired with discussion. In a classroom setting the programmes shown had to most effect when there was a discussion of the prosocial aspects afterwards. However, when this was used on adolescents it had the opposite effect, possibly because they have a tendency to act against authority. |
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Developmental Factors
MEDIA INFLUENCES ON PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR |
Research has suggested that many of the skills involved in prosocial behaviour (such as; perspective taking, empathy and moral reasoning) develop through childhood into early adolescence. Therefore development may be effected by media. This means that younger children may be less effected by prosocial portrayals in the media than older children.
Despite the expectations that younger children would be least affected, the meta-analysis by Mares (1996) found that the weakest effect was for adolescents and the strongest for primary school children. The expectation that media may have an effect at all stages of development may be unrealistic as at a young age children are more likely to pay attention to home enforced rules and norms that media ones. |
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Parental Mediation
MEDIA INFLUENCES ON PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR |
The effects of television have been seen to improve when viewing is mediated by a parental figure. Austin (1993) suggested that effective mediation involves the parent discussing the programme with the child, explaining any ambiguous or disturbing material and following up concepts. Parental mediation has been shown to enhance the learning effect of Sesame Street (Rice, 1990). Rosenkotter (1999) suggested that with parental mediation, children as young as 7 were able to understand moral messages in adult sitcoms.
Valkenburg et al (1999) found that only co-viewing was largely ineffective in comparison to co-viewing and discussion. Discussion and explanation is needed to make it effective in promoting prosocial behaviour. |
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Research Studies
MEDIA INFLUENCES ON PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR |
Mares (1996) examined research considering 4 main behavioural effects of prosocial media.
Altruism. Poulos et al (1975) showed that young children who watched an episode of Lassie were more likely to help puppies in distress. Self control. Friedrich and Stein (1973) found that 4 year olds who watched Mister Rogers' Neighbourhood over 4 weeks showed more obedience and task persistence than those watching aggressive cartoons. Positive interaction. Friedrich and Stein used observers to watch the children. The children who watched to prosocial programme behaved in a more friendly manner. Anti-stereotyping. Johnston and Ettema (1982) conducted a large scale study involving thousands of 9 to 12 year olds. The children watched a programme designed to lower sex stereotyping. There was positives and children became less prejudice. |
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Other Media Than TV
MEDIA INFLUENCES ON PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR |
Research focusses on television and it's effects but children's storybooks also carry prosocial messages. Also, storybooks are repeated often at night and so the messages are more likely to stick in the children's minds. Internet is also becoming a popular source of information, but there are no studies around prosocial effects as yet.l
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Observational Learning and Imitation
MEDIA INFLUENCES ON ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOUR |
Social Learning Theory accounts for learning through observation. Children can be expected to repeat aggressive behaviour if the model using it is successful. The more real children observe the TV models the more they identify with them and the more likely they are to copy them. Philips (1983) examined crime statistics for the 10 day period following televised boxing matches. He found a rise in murders during this period.
Childhood aggression is supported by Bandura's theory of social learning. Bandura also found that cartoon characters can act as role models for children to imitate. However, this doesn't seem to be the case outside of Bandura's specially prepared videos. |
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Cognitive Priming
MEDIA INFLUENCES ON ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOUR |
Cognitive priming refers to the activation of existing aggressive thoughts and feelings, and explains why aggression does not have to be taught by individual acts. After watching a violent programme, the viewer is primed for aggression as the schemas for aggression have been called upon. Frequent viewing of aggression may cause children to memories sequences of violence which they may use later.
Josephson (1987) deliberately frustrated hockey players and then they either watched a violent or non-violent video in which an actor held a walkie-talkie. In a hockey game afterwards the players who were most aggressive were those who has seen the violent film AND their referee held a walkie-talkie, suggesting that aggression can be cued by unrelated items if this is programmed prior to the aggressive act. |
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Desensitisation
MEDIA INFLUENCES ON ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOUR |
Normally, the involvement of anxiety may stop an individual from committing an act of violence. However, media influence may work to stimulate aggression but desensitising children to the effects of violence. The more aggression a child sees, the more acceptable it seems to be. Frequent watching may cause the child to loose the anxiety that occurs over aggression. Someone who has become desensitised to violence may be more likely to commit it because it is "normal".
Cumberbatch (2001) argued that people might get "used" to screen violence but this does not mean a person will also get used to violence in the real world. He claims that screen violence is more likely to frighten children than make them frightening. |
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Lowered Physiological Arousal
MEDIA INFLUENCES ON ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOUR |
Studies have found that there are stronger desensitisation effects for men than women. A report showed that boys who watched a lot of TV had a lower than average physiological arousal in response to violent scenes. The arousal stimulated by viewing violence is unpleasant at first, but children who constantly watch violent television become used to it and their emotional and physiological responses reduce.
It has also been claimed that watching violence leads to increase arousal and therefore more aggression. The excitation-transfer model suggests that arousal creates a readiness to aggress if there are appropriate circumstances. Also, some theorists believe that watching violence has beneficial effects - the arousal allows the release of pent up aggressive energies. |
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justification
MEDIA INFLUENCES ON ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOUR |
Violent television may provide justification for the child's behaviour, or act as moral guidelines. Morals are learn through all social interaction which includes the media. If the media shows predominantly violent moral messages this is what the child will pick up. Violent media may also be used to alleviate guilt and justify actions once they have already happened.
Many TV programmes have mixed prosocial and antisocial messages, for example; when a prosocial character is aggressive. Liss and Reinhardt (1979) suggest that negative effects of such programmes support the concept of justification as children identify more with the "good guys". |
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The Anti-Effects Lobby
MEDIA INFLUENCES ON ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOUR |
There is a growing concern that the media are unreasonably the focus of blame for violent behaviour. The evidence, however, does not universally support the hypothesis that media causes violent behaviour.For example, Belson (1978) interviewed over 1500 adolescent boys, and focus that those who watched the least television when they were younger were less aggressive in adolescence. However, boys who watched most television when they were younger were less aggressive than boys who watched moderate amounts. This suggests that the link between television and violence is unpredictable.
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Prosocial versus Antisocial Effects
MEDIA INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOUR |
The Mares study suggests that children are more likely to generalise with antisocial acts than with prosocial ones. This means that exposure to any aggression will create any violent behaviour whereas prosocial behaviours have to be imitated exactly. This limits the effectiveness of prosocial media.
Lovelace and Huston (1983) suggested that prosocial effects can be achieved by setting prosocial goals against antisocial ones in the same programme. However, it seems that mixing messages somehow reduces the effectiveness of the prosocial message. One study found that children who watched a mixed message programme were more violent that the children who watched an aggressive only programme. |
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Gender Bias
MEDIA INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOUR |
Effects research has mainly focused on acts of male on male physical violence, which is normally viewed under laboratory conditions. There means the setting causes ecological validity issues. There is also no conception of how this focus on television violence will affect male and female viewers responses.
As well as this, the research often uses unrepresentative samples, such as male students. This gender bias is often avoided in the research with the use of generic terms such as "college students" without defining their sex. |
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Methodological and Ethical Problems
MEDIA INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOUR |
There is the likelihood of demand characteristics; where the child acts how they believe the experimenter wants to the act. This happened often in Bandura's studies.
These studies have also stopped due to the ethical issues of exposing young children to violence that they may not normally come into contact with. |
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Experimental Studies
EFFECTS OF VIDEO GAMES AND COMPUTERS |
Experimental studies are those conducted under laboratory conditions.
Gentile and Stone (2005) found short term increases in levels of physiological arousal, hostile feelings and aggressive behaviour following sessions of violent game play in comparison to non-violent game play. Arousal is normally measured by blood pressure and heart rate, and hostile feelings by self-report measures such as the State Hostility Scale (SHS). Aggression cannot be measure directly due to ethical issues relating to harm. Instead, participants are often provided the opportunity to blast others with white noise to relieve aggression. Anderson and Dill (2000) found student participants blasted their opponents with white noise for longer and rated themselves higher on the SHS when playing a violent shooting game in comparison to a puzzle game. |
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Experimental Studies cont.
EFFECTS OF VIDEO GAMES AND COMPUTERS |
The major strength of experimental studies is that any causal relationship between violent video games and aggressive behaviour can be accepted as cause and effects, even if only in the short term. However, because the study is so closely controlled to ensure this, it means the external validity is compromised. It would be unethical to allow participants to cause harm to one another so they have to find alternative, and unrealistic, ways of released and measuring aggression. However, some studies have found that those people who blast white noise more than others are more likely to cause violence in the real world as well.
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Correlation Studies
EFFECTS OF VIDEO GAMES AND COMPUTERS |
Correlation studies are used to identify patterns of video games and behaviour.
Gentile and Anderson (2003) studies over 600 adolescents and found that time spent playing violent computer games was associated with aggressive feelings, arguments with teachers and physical fighting. Even those children who had lower levels of trait hostility were more violent is they regularly played violent games that children who had high levels of trait hostility and didn't play such games. Correlation studies overcome the lack of reality in laboratory conditions and can be used to measure long term effects. However, cause and effect cannot be assumed as they may be other extraneous variables that have had an effect. |
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Longitudinal Studies
EFFECTS OF VIDEO GAMES AND COMPUTERS |
These studies follow participants over a long period of time, but longitudinal studies into the effects of video games are rare.
Ihori et al (2003) surveyed 800 Japanese 9 to 10 year old children twice during a school year. They found that the amount of video game play at Time 1 was significantly related to later physical aggression, but aggression at Time 1 was not related to later game play. Anderson et al (2007) studies 430 7 to 9 year old children twice during the school year. Children who had high exposure to violent video games became more physically and verbally aggressive and became less prosocial. Longitudinal studies overcome the problems of experimental and correlational studies. By studying the same people over a period of time, researchers are able to observe patterns of behaviour. However, participants may be exposed to other sources of violence which means that the effects may not be video games alone. |
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Meta-Analysis
EFFECTS OF VIDEO GAMES AND COMPUTERS |
Gentile and Anderson (2003) conducted a meta-analysis looking at all studies linking violent video games and aggressive behaviour. Almost all found this link, and most held true for both children and adults. It was also found that the effects have increased, which is to be expected as violence in video games has also increased over time.
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Methodological Problems
EFFECTS OF VIDEO GAMES AND COMPUTERS |
There are problems with publication bias. This occurs when articles with positive results are selected over negative results because it provides better media. This means the published articles provide a bias view. Ferguson (2007) analysed 17 studies, and once the publication bias had been corrected there was no aggression link found.
There is also the problem of distinguishing between violent and non-violent games. Early studies included games that were aggressive, but not towards people. Also, there is no account taken for other emotions that are stirred while playing games, such as excitement or frustration. These could contribute to the subsequent behaviour. |
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Individual Differences
EFFECTS OF VIDEO GAMES AND COMPUTERS |
Recent research suggests that people with a more aggressive personality engage in a more aggressive style of game play playing. Unlike other media, games can provide a different experience for different players depending on how they play. Some players may choose to use more violent weapons that create more gore.
Wei and Lo (2008) used screen capture video to follow how 40 students played two violent online video games. Students who had previously scored highly on a questionnaire played more aggressively and with more frequent violent interactions. |
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Explanations: The Bi-Directional Model
EFFECTS OF VIDEO GAMES AND COMPUTERS |
Research has yet to define a reliable and causal link between violent game play and aggressive behaviour. Gentile and Anderson (2003) developed the bi-directional model, which suggests that although violent video games may cause an increase in aggressive behaviour, it is just as likely tat people who already possess personality traits that orientate them towards aggressive behaviour, preferentially select violent video games for recreational purposes.
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Explanations: Desensitisation
EFFECTS OF VIDEO GAMES AND COMPUTERS |
Funk (1993) suggested that people who are repeatedly exposed to violent video games become desensitised to violence and are therefore less likely to show an aversion to it. If this aversion is missing then they are more likely to commit aggressive acts.
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Explanations: Interactive and Passive Games
EFFECTS OF VIDEO GAMES AND COMPUTERS |
Porter and Starcevic (2007) suggest that interactive media violence in video games may exert a greater influence than passive media, such as television. This is because the games provide a reward for violent acts and convey messages that aggression is good. This suggest that violent games lack a moral message. Also, players often play these games so fast due to the quick pace that they have little time to reflect on their actions.
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The Hovland-Yale Model
PERSUASION AND ATTITUDE CHANGE |
This was originally developed by Carl Hovland at Yale University to find ways of persuading the American public to increase their levels of support in the closing stages of the war. The model suggests that effective persuasion can be achieved by focusing on WHO says WHAT to WHOM.
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The Hovland-Yale Model: Source Factors
PERSUASION AND ATTITUDE CHANGE |
It has been found that credible experts are particularly powerful source of persuasion.
Bochner and Insko (1966) asked students how much sleep was required to maintain good health. Most said around 8 hours. However, when exposed to two different source of opinion; one from an expert, one from a normal person, students were swayed more by the expert and some changed their own beliefs. Attractive sources can also provide persuasive, particularly through celebrity endorsement. Morton and Campbell (2008) examined the effects of information source on peers' attitudes toward an unfamiliar child with autism. Children of 10 received information about the child from a teacher, a parent and a doctor. Children reported more favourable attitudes towards the child when the information was provided by the doctor than when it came from a parent. |
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The Hovland-Yale Model: Message Factors
PERSUASION AND ATTITUDE CHANGE |
Martin (1997) found that as children grow up they understand advertisement better and are less affected by them.
Low fear and high fear messages don't have as much effect as moderate fear messages do. McGuire (1968) suggests that low levels of fear do little to motivate the audiences and high levels of fear create too much anxiety for the audience to focus on the message. Lewis et al (2008) found support for the effectiveness of fear in advertisement when studying drink driving ads. Participants were asked to view to advertisements and complete two questionnaires, one assessing pre and post attitudes and thoughts, and the other assessed attitudes and thoughts 2 to 4 weeks later. The found that although fear arousing messages have a short term effect, more positive approaches were likely to have a long term effect. |
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The Hovland-Yale Model: Audience Factors
PERSUASION AND ATTITUDE CHANGE |
McGuire (1968) suggested that low intelligence audiences are less likely to process the content of a message and so will be less influenced by it. High intelligence audiences are confident in their own views and are therefore harder to persuade. one sided arguments are better for low intelligence audiences, but intelligent audiences would reject these and want both sides of the argument.
Involvement with a topic can cause differences in reactions. Igartua et al (2003) tested the idea that a good way to deal with the low involvement of an audience is to insert entertaining features. Fictional stories were used to illustrate HIV/AIDS prevention. The findings showed the better quality of the fictional story, the more cognitive processing was induced, and a more favourable attitude towards prevention was achieved. |
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The Hovland-Yale Model: Methodological Problems
PERSUASION AND ATTITUDE CHANGE |
It is possibly inappropriate to generalise from the samples that are normally used in these types of studies; such as students and sometimes army cadets. These groups are not typical of the general public.
Also, the experiments were normally conducted under laboratory conditions which means that the situations they were put into lacked ecological validity. |
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Elaboration-Likelihood Model
PERSUASION AND ATTITUDE CHANGE |
Petty and Cacioppo (1981) suggested two different routes to persuasive communication depending on whether the audience is likely to focus on the message itself or the context surrounding it. If an audience is likely to focus on the arguments then a central route would be more appropriate. If the audience focuses more on the context that the message itself then the peripheral route is more effective.
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Elaboration-Likelihood Model: Central Route
PERSUASION AND ATTITUDE CHANGE |
The central route is taken when the audience is more concerned with the message and the strength of the arguments made. It was suggested that some people enjoy analysing arguments, those with a high need for cognition (NC), and are more likely to focus on the quality of the arguments than their context. Attitudes that are changed in this way are more lasting and are less likely to change again.
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Elaboration-Likelihood Model: Peripheral Route
PERSUASION AND ATTITUDE CHANGE |
Fiske and Taylor (1984) claimed that most human beings are essentially cognitive misers in that they frequently rely on simple and time efficient strategies when evaluating information and making decisions. When processing by this route, individuals are more likely to be influenced by contextual cues, such as celebrity endorsement. Messages processed in this way tend to be less personally important and don't make a lasting attitude change, if any at all.
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Elaboration-Likelihood Model: Evaluation
PERSUASION AND ATTITUDE CHANGE |
Haugtvedt et al (1992) provided support for the claim that the central route for persuasion is more effective for high NC individuals. They found that attitude change in high NC individuals was based more on evaluation of product attributes in advertisements than was the case with low NC individuals. For low NC individuals, simple peripheral cues were more important in shaping attitudes.
Need for cognition has been demonstrated outside of laboratory conditions. Vidrine et al (2007) showed how it is a relevant factor in health campaigns. Students were exposed to fact based (central route) and emotion based (peripheral route) smoking risk campaign. Those with higher NC were more influenced by the fact based message, whereas low NC participants were more influenced by emotion based messages. |
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Elaboration-Likelihood Model: Evaluation cont.
PERSUASION AND ATTITUDE CHANGE |
Di Blasio and Milani (2008) investigated the possibility that computer mediated communication (CMC) was more likely to activate central route processing that face to face interaction. Groups of students discussed, a reorganisation of the university refectory. At the half way point in the discussion the experimenter introduced a new piece of information from an influential source. The information was in contrast to the groups prevailing opinion. There were fewer opinion changed in the CMC condition than in the face to face condition, where participants had changed their minds because of the credibility of the source. The CMC group, therefore, had not been distracted by the context of the message and had stuck to their original view.
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Gender Bias
PERSUASION AND ATTITUDE CHANGE |
A number of studies have concluded that women are more susceptible to persuasive communications than men. Psychologists have attempted to explain this in terms of socialisation differences - women are socialised to conform and therefore are more open to social influence.
It was claimed that women are more susceptible to persuasive communications because the topics presented in the studies are more suited to men then women. If the topic was to change to a more woman friendly one, the men would become more susceptible to persuasive communications. This can be seen as though the gender difference may be due to methodological issues. |
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Television and Advertising
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TELEVISION |
Television advertising has long been used as a means of persuading viewers through advertisement. Success of such advertisement is measured through looking at how it has shaped customer behaviour, though this is usually measured in terms of their opinion rather than whether they have actually bought the product.
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Hard Sell and Soft Sell Advertisement
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TELEVISION |
Hard sell and soft sell techniques reflect the elaboration-likelihood model. Hard sell is the same as the central route and soft sell is the same as the peripheral route.
Snyder and Bono (1985) found that the different approaches have different effects on different people. People who scored highly on a test of self monitoring and awareness had more favourable attitudes to soft sell advertisements. People who were less image conscious preferred more factual, hard sell approaches. |
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Product Endorsement
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TELEVISION |
Fowles (1996) estimated that in 1990, 20% of TV commercials used celebrity endorsement. Giles (2003) suggested they offer a familiar face we feel we can trust due to a parasocial relationship.
O'Mahony and Meenaghan (1997) found that in general , celebrity endorsement were not regarded as overly convincing or effective. Research into celebrity endorsement suggests it's not as effective as first thought. Martin et al (2008) found that student participants were more convinced by a TV ad endorsed by a fictional fellow student, than a celebrity. Also, young people are more concerned about the product being fashionable with their peers than it having the approval of a celebrity. |
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Children and Advertisement
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TELEVISION |
Martin (1997) conducted a meta analysis that found a strong positive correlation between age and understanding of persuasive intent. Older children could discriminate between commercials and regular TV, and they also showed an understanding of the persuasive aim of the advertisement.
There is also the effect of pester power. Children watch advertisements and then pester their parents about the product. Pine and Nash (2001) found a strong positive correlation between the amount of advertisement watched by children and the number of items advertised on the Christmas list. |
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Television and Advertisement: Evaluation
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TELEVISION |
Pine and Nash (2001) found a correlation between children's wish lists and amount of advertisement watched. However, there are other factors that may have an influence. For example, it was found that this effect was lessened if the TV ads were watched with a parent, which suggests they have a mediating effect.
Also, the reason that cinema and television audiences are so successful is because they have a captive audience. However, unlike cinema audiences, TV audiences have other options, such as leaving during ads. Comstock and Scharrer (1999) found that 80% of viewers were likely to leave during the adverts, and when a programme was recorded, the advertisements were fast forwarded through. |
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Cultural Differences
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TELEVISION |
Pine and Nash (2001) studied children's gift requests over Christmas in the US and Sweden. In Sweden television advertising aimed at under 12 year olds is banned. They found significantly fewer gift requests in Sweden than in the US.
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Gender Bias
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TELEVISION |
In television advertising, men are typically shown in stereotypical role of authority and dominance, and when shown attempting non-traditional gender roles such as cooking and cleaning, men are often represented as incompetent. Such gender stereotypes reinforce the traditional role of the woman. As a result, gender stereotyped advertisement promote an acceptance of this current social arrangements no matter how biased or inappropriate these representations are.
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Television and Health Campaigns
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TELEVISION |
Research suggests that the media, particularly television, can be an effective tool in health promotion. French (2004) suggests the situations in which media have been found to be most appropriate:
When wide exposure is desired. When the time frame is urgent. When the behaviour goal is simple. There has been research support for the effectiveness of television in educating people about health issues. As example of this is alcohol. Knowledge of units in popular drinks increase 300% in 5 years due to TV advertisement. |
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Role of Fictional Drama
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TELEVISION |
Television is an important potential source of medical information, with programmes such as Casualty. Medical knowledge within the drama is likely to have an impression on the audience.
Hawton et al (1999) found that viewers of Casualty retained information about paracetamol dosage despite other storylines. Philo and Henderson (1999) found that after viewing an episode focussing on unnecessary attendance to A&E, most people wouldn't do the same in real life. There is the question of separating fact and fiction, but many argue people can do this, and trust programmes such as Casualty because it provides correct medical facts. |
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Social Psychological Explanations: Parasocial Relationships
THE ATTRACTION OF CELEBRITY |
A parasocial relationship in one in which an individual is attracted to another individual (usually a celebrity), but the target individual is usually unaware of the existence of the person who has created the relationship. Such relationships are common in celebrities and their fans., and might be particularly appealing to some individuals because the relationship demands very little. Because a fan does not have a real relationship with the celebrity they avoid criticism and rejection.
Schiappa et al (2007) carried out a meta-analysis of studies of parasocial relationships. They found that relationships were more likely to form with television stars who were seen as attractive and similar in some way to the viewer. They also have to act, or be perceived as real. Often this is thought that this is an adolescent phenomenon but no evidence was found that age was a predictor of such behaviour. |
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Social Psychological Explanations: Parasocial Relationships: Evaluation
THE ATTRACTION OF CELEBRITY |
it is commonly believed that parasocial relationships with celebrities are dysfunctional and formed on the basis of loneliness, but research does not support this. The meta analysis found that loneliness was not an indicator of the formation of parasocial relationships. Some research found that more socially active people develop that form of attachment more often than less socially active people.
Parasocial relationships may offer benefits. They provide models of social behaviour, and an opportunity to learn cultural values. It was found that when people were exposed to the same person or character over and over that they was a perceived reduction in uncertainty about social relationships. |
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Social Psychological Explanations: The Absorption Addiction Model
THE ATTRACTION OF CELEBRITY |
This model was developed by McCutcheon et al (2002) which suggests that most people never go beyond admiration for a celebrity. However, the motivational sources driving the absorption may become addictive, leading the person to more extreme behaviours in order to gain satisfaction.
Giles and Maltby (2006) developed 3 levels: Entertainment-social - fans are attracted to a favourite celebrity because of their entertainment value and their ability to become a topic of conversation. Intense-personal - intense and compulsive feelings over the celebrity, similar to obsessive behaviour. Borderline-pathological - this dimension is typified by uncontrollable behaviours and fantasies about the celebrities. It was suggested that the intense-personal level can lead to the development of a parasocial relationship. |
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Social Psychological Explanations: The Absorption Addiction Model: Evaluation
THE ATTRACTION OF CELEBRITY |
Maltby et al (2003) assessed the relationship between levels of celebrity worship and personality. They found that whereas the entertainment-social level was associated with extraversion, the intense-personal level was associated with neuroticism. This is related to anxiety and depression, which provides an explanations as to why higher levels of celebrity worship are related to poorer mental heath.
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Parasocial Relationships and Eating Disorders
THE ATTRACTION OF CELEBRITY |
Maltby et al (2005) found evidence of a relationship between attitudes to celebrities and body image among female adolescents. This was strongest in girls between 14 and 17, and suggests that parasocial relationships with celebrities who are perceived as being thin lead to a poor body image and consequently may lead to eating disorders. No such relationship was found in males and this is thought to leave females in early adulthood.
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Evolutionary Explanations: Attraction to Creative Individuals
THE ATTRACTION OF CELEBRITY |
Humans possess a love of novelty. For females choosing a mate, a more and more creative display would be required. Creative courtship methods would have developed, and now music, art and humour fall under this category. Celebrities often show these creative abilities in abundance and so we are drawn to them.
Miller (2000) argued that although natural selection favoured the strong and the quick, sexual selection favoured the creative. Shiraishi et al (2006) discovered an enzyme correlated with novelty seeking tendencies. Genetic differences mean different people produce different levels of MAOA. Research has found that one form of this was associated with higher novelty seeking scores, and so are more attracted to celebrities. There is no explanation as to why females would prefer creative individuals as they would have not aided survival in any way. |
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Evolutionary Explanations: Celebrity Gossip
THE ATTRACTION OF CELEBRITY |
The exchange of group members would have been an adaptive response for early humans. The exchange of information is now known as gossip. This would have been vital for creating bonds, and works to introduce and initiate others into the groups. Gossip also functioned as a means of constructing reputations, especially for rival groups, and for gaining information about a mate.
Now, not only do we talk but we also receive information from the media. It is suggested that our minds are fooled into thinking the people in the media are part of out social group and trigger gossip responses to keep up with group affairs. De Backer (2007) surveyed over 800 participants who reported that gossip was a useful way of acquiring information about social group members. Media exposure was found to be a predictor of interest in celebrities. It was concluded that media exposure would lead to the misperception that celebrities were part of the social group, thus explaining the gossip interest. |
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Celebrity Worship
INTENSE FANDOM |
Most research on celebrity worship uses the Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS) in which the higher the score the more focussed on celebrities an individual is. This scale was used to develop the three levels of parasocial relationships.
It is normally though celebrity worship is fairly uncommon, a study by Maltby et al (2003) found that over 1/3 of a sample of students and workers scored above the mid points of the three subscales of the CAS. In a later study of 372 people, 5% were at the intense-personal level, and 2% at the borderline-pathological level. |
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Celebrity Worship and Development
INTENSE FANDOM |
Celebrity worship has been associated with less desirable developmental outcomes.
Cheung and Yue (2003) conducted a telephone study of 833 Chinese teenagers and found that idol worship was associated with lower levels of work or study and lower self esteem. Those teenagers who worshipped TV celebrities had the lowest levels of identity and achievement. Maltby et al (2001) concluded that celebrity worshippers have lower levels of psychological wellbeing than non-worshippers. Data from 307 UK adults identified that scores on the entertainment-social level predicted patterns of social dysfunction, and scores on the intense-personal level predicted both anxiety and depression scores. |
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Celebrity Worship: Evaluation
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It was found that teenagers who worshipped parents or teachers or people they came into contact with regularly demonstrated higher levels of self esteem and educational achievement than those who worshipped celebrities. This real appreciation incurs targets and expectations which cannot be gained from someone with whom they have no contact with.
Research has also sown that high profile celebrity suicides are often followed by increased numbers of suicides among the general population. Sheridan et al (2007) makes the point that pathological worshippers are often drawn to more entertaining, and sometimes antisocial celebrities. As they are drawn to these people they might want to copy them, but this could have negative consequences. |
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Celebrity Worship: Evolutionary Explanation
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Evolutionary psychologists suggest that it is natural to worship those who succeed in hunting and surviving. Those traits have been replaced now, but the celebrity's fame and fortune is still something we would like to share or be part of.
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Celebrity Worship and Religiosity
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Christians ban the worship of others, so religiosity should have a negative correlation with celebrity worship and this is what research found.
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Stalking
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Stalking is when repeated and persistent attempts to impose unwanted attention onto a person occurs.
Dressing et al (2005) found that 11.5% of people had been a victim of stalking. Most victims were women and most of the stalkers were men. The effects on psychological health appeared to be significant. Victims reported they had changed their lifestyle after being stalked, and reported feelings such as; aggravation, depression and sleep disturbances. Tonin (2004) investigated whether stalking behaviour was linked to an insecure attachement |
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Types of Stalker
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Two types of stalker have been identified. Around 1 in 5 stalkers develop a love obsession with another person with whom they have no relationship. Stalkers of this type are other thought to suffer from disturbed thoughts or schizophrenia.
Since most are unable to make normal relationships they attach others. They may invent stories and they attempt to act these out in real life. The second type is more common and have a simple obsession which is focused on a previous acquaintance, often with someone they had a relationship. |
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Cyberstalking
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Modern technology makes stalking easier. Fisher and Cullen (2000) surveyed over 4000 female undergraduates and found that 13% found they had been cyberstalked. Finn (2004) found that 15% had received messages that were insulting, harrassing or threatening.
Some suggest that this form of stalking reaps less rewards because the stalker can see the negative effects on the person more than they would during regular stalking. |
