Psychology Final

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learning

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a process that produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of past experience

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conditioning

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the process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses.

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classical conditioning

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the basic learning process that involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a response-producing stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response

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unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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The natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning.

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unconditioned response (UCR)

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the unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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A formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response

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conditioned response (CR)

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The learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus

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stimulus generalization

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the occurrence of a learned response not only to the original stimulus but to other, similar stimuli as well

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stimulus discrimination

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the occurrence of a learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli.

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higher order conditioning

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the use of a previously conditioned stimulus to condition further responses, in much the same way unconditioned stimuli are used.

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extinction (in classical conditioning)

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The gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of conditioned behavior. Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus

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spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned elements

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Ivan Paklov

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principles of classical conditioning

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behaviorism

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school of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasize the scientific study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning

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John B. Watson

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founded behaviorism

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placebo response

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an individual's psychological and physiological response to what is actually a fake treatment or drug (placebo effect)

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operant

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Skinner's term for an actively emitted (or voluntary) behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences

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operant conditioning

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explains learning as a process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences

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reinforcement

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when a stimulus or an event follows an operant and increases the likelihood of the operant being repeated

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positive reinforcement

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a situation in which a response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations

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negative reinforcement

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A situation in which a response results in the removal of, avoidance of, or escape from a punishing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated certain situations

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primary reinforcer

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a stimulus or event that is naturally or inherently reinforcing for a given species, such as food, water, or other biological necessities

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conditioned reinforcer

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a stimulus or event that has acquired reinforcing value by being associated with a primary reinforcer

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punishment

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a process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated

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punishment by application (positive punishment)

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a response being followed by the presentation of an aversive stimulus (positive means added)

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punishment by removal (negative punishment)

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loss or withdrawal of reinforcing stimulus following a behavior

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discriminantive stimulus

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the specific stimulus in the presence of which a particular operant is more likely to be reinforced

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operant chamber/skinner box

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the experimental apparatus invented by B.F. Skinner to study the relationship between environmental events and active behaviors

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shaping

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reinforcing successively closer approximations of a behavior until the correct behavior is displayed

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continuous reinforcement

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a schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of a particular response is reinforced

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partial reinforcement

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a situation in which the occurrence of a particular response is only sometimes followed by a reinforcer

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schedules of reinforcement

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the delivery of a reinforcer according to a preset pattern based on the number of responses or time interval between responses

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extinction (in operant conditioning)

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extinction occurs when an emitted behavior is no longer followed by a reinforcer

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partial reinforcement effect

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partially reinforced behaviors tend to be more resistant to extinction than are behaviors conditioned using continuous reinforcement

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fixed-ratio (FR) schedule

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reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses

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variable-ratio (VR) schedule

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reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses, which varies from trial to trial

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fixed-interval (FI) schedule

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a reinforcer is delivered for the first response emitted after the preset time interval has elapsed

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variable-interval (VI) schedule

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reinforcement occurs for the first response emitted after an average amount of time has elapsed, but the interval varies from trial to trial

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behavior modification

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the application of learning principles to help people develop more effective or adaptive behaviors

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cognitive map

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Tolman's term for the mental representation of the layout of a familiar environment

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latent learning

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Tolman's term for learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement but is not behaviorally demonstrated until a reinforcer becomes available

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Edward C. Tolman

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modern cognitive learning, cognitive map, latent learning

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learned helplessness

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a phenomenon in which exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior

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instinctive drift

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the tendency of an animal o revert to instinctive behaviors hat can interfere with the performance of an operantly conditioned response

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observational learning

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learning takes places through observing the actions of others

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The bobo doll experiment

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children were more likely to imitate the behavior they saw the adult demonstrating if the adult's actions had no consequences; act violently towards doll

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Albert Bandura

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observational learning; bobo doll experiment

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what are some factors that increase imitation?

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people are rewarded for their actions, warm people, people who have power over you, etc.

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mirror neurons

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they fire both when an action is performed and when an action is perceived. Imitate observed action as though the observer were carrying out the action.

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negative effects of T.V.

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increased pregnancy rates and violence becomes more acceptable

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positive effects of t.v.

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promote social change and healthy behaviors

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memory

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the mental processes that enable us to retain and use information over time

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encoding

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the process of transforming information into a form that can be entered and retained by the memory system

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storage

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the process of retaining information in memory so that it can be used at a later time

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retrieval

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the process of recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it

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stage model of memory

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a model describing memory as consisting of three stages: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory

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short-term memory

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the active stage of memory in which information is stored for up to about 20 seconds

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long-term memory

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the stage of memory that represent the long-term storage of information

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sensory memory

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the stage of memory that registers information from the environment and holds it for a very brief period of time (1/4 second to 3 seconds)

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George Sperling

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studied the duration of sensory memory

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Which holds information longer: auditory sensory memory OR visual sensory memory?

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auditory sensory memory: 3-4 seconds

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maintenance rehearsal

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the mental or verbal repetition of information in order to maintain it beyond the usual 20-second duration of short-term memory

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chunking

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increasing the amount of information that can be held in short-term memory by grouping related items together into a single unit

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how many bits of information can short-term memory hold?

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up to seven items

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working memory

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short-term memory system involved in the temporary storage and active manipulation of information

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elaborative rehearsal

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rehearsal that involves focusing on the meaning of information to help encode and transfer it to long-term memory

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procedural memory

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category of long-term memory that includes memories of different skills, operations, and actions

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episodic memory

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category of long-term memory that includes memories of particular events

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semantic memory

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category of long-term memory that includes memories of general knowledge of facts, names, and concepts

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explicit memory

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information or knowledge that can be consciously recollected

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implicit memory

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information or knowledge that affects behavior or task performance but cannot be consciously recollected

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semantic network model

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describes units of information in long-term memory as being organized in a complex network of associations

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retrieval

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the process of accessing stored information

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retrieval cue

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a clue, prompt, or hint that helps trigger recall of a given piece of information store in long term memory

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retrieval cue failure

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the inability to recall longer-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues

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tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) experience

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a memory phenomenon that involves the sensation of knowing that specific information is stored in long-term memory, but being temporarily unable to retrieve it

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recall

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a test of long-term memory that involves retrieving information without the aid of retrieval cues

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cued recall

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a test of long-term memory that involves remembering an item of information in response to a retrieval cue

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recognition

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a test of long-term memory that involves identifying correct information out of several possible choices

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serial position effect

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the tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle

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encoding specificity principle

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when the conditions of information retrieval are similar to the conditions of information encoding, retrieval is more likely to be successful

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context effect

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recover information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting in which you originally learned the information

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mood congruence

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a given mood tends to evoke memories that consistent with that mood

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Hermann Ebbinghaus

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the forgetting curve: rapid loss of some information, then stable memories of the remaining information

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encoding failure

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unable to recall specific information because it was never encoded into long-term memory

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prospective memory

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remembering to do something in the future

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source memory

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memory for when, where, and how a piece of information was acquired

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decay theory

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view that forgetting is due to metabolic processes in the brain

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interference theory

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the theory that forgetting is caused by one meory competing with or replacing another

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retroactive interference

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a new memory interferes with an old memory

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proactive interference

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an old memory interferes with remembering a new memory

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suppression

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motivated forgetting that occurs consciously

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repression

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motivated forgetting that occurs unconsciously

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misinformation effect

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a memory-distorting phenomenon in which a person's existing memories can be altered if the person is exposed to misleading information

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source confusion

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a memory distortion that occurs when the true source of a memory is forgotten

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Elizabeth Lotus

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studies memory distortion

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false memory

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a distorted or fabricated recollection of something that did not actually occur

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schema

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an organized cluster of information about a particular topic

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script

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a schema for the typical sequence of an everyday event

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imagination inflation

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a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occured

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memory trace

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the brain changes associated with a particular stored memory

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long-term potentiation

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a long-lasting increase in synaptic strength between two neurons

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retrograde amnesia

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loss of memory, especially for episodic information

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memory consolidation

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the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring long-term memory codes

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anterograde amnesia

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loss of memory caused by the inability to store new memories

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dementia

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progressive deterioration and impairment of memory, reasoning, and other cognitive functions

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Alzheimer's disease

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a progressive disease that destroy the brain's neurons, gradually impairing memory, thinking, etc. most common form of dementia

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cognition

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the mental activities involved in acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge

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thinking

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the manipulation of mental representations of information in order to draw inferences and conclusions

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mental image

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a mental representation of objects or events that are not physically present

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concept

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a mental category of objects or ideas based on properties they share

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formal concept

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a mental category that is formed by learning the rules or features that define it; geometric shapes

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natural concept

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a mental category that is formed as a result of everyday experience

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prototype

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the most typical instance of a particular concept: fruit-orange

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exemplars

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individual instances of a concept or category

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problem solving

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thinking and behavior directed toward attaining a goal that is not readily available

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trial and error

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trying a variety of solutions and eliminating those that don't work

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algorithm

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a procedure or method that, when followed step by step, always produces the correct solution

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heuristic

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a problem-solving strategy that involves following a general rule of thumb to reduce the number of possible of solutions

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functional fixedness

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the tendency to view objects as functioning only in their usual or customary way; a brick

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mental set

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the tendency to persist in solving problems with solutions that have worked in the past

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availability heuristic

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estimate the likelihood of an event on the basis of how readily available other instances of the event are in our memory; 9-11

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representativeness heuristic

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a strategy in which the likelihood of an event is estimated by comparing how similar it is to the prototype of an event

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language

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a system for combining arbitrary symbols to produce an infinite number of meaningful statements

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linguistic relativity hypothesis

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the hypothesis that differences among languages cause differences in the thoughts of their speakers

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intelligence

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the global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment

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intelligence quotient (IQ)

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a measure of general intelligence derived by comparing an individual's score with the scores of others in the same age group

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standardization

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the test is given to a large number of subjects who are representative of the group of people for whom the test is designed

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reliability

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the ability of a test to produce consistent results when administered on repeated occasions under similar conditions

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validity

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the ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure

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stereotype threat

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a pschyolgical predicament in which fear that you will be evaluated in terms of a negative stereotype which creates anxiety and lowers performance